SherbyNet - /page/wikibook/entry.mu

Micron Document

<!DOCTYPE html>

<title>Protectionism</title>

</head>

Protectionism

</h1>

</header>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Protectionist" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="Protectionist_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Protectionist (disambiguation)">Protectionist (disambiguation)</a>.</div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="International_trade" title="International trade">World trade</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding: 0.4em 0 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc"></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc; background: transparent; text-align: left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Commercial_policy" title="Commercial policy">Policy</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Import" title="Import">Import</a></li>

<li><a href="Export" title="Export">Export</a></li>

<li><a href="Balance_of_trade" title="Balance of trade">Balance of trade</a></li>

<li><a href="International_trade_law" title="International trade law">Trade law</a></li>

<li><a href="Trade_agreement" title="Trade agreement">Trade pact</a></li>

<li><a href="Trade_bloc" title="Trade bloc">Trade bloc</a></li>

<li><a href="Trade_creation" title="Trade creation">Trade creation</a></li>

<li><a href="Trade_diversion" title="Trade diversion">Trade diversion</a></li>

<li><a href="Export-oriented_industrialization" title="Export-oriented industrialization">Export orientation</a></li>

<li><a href="Import_substitution_industrialization" title="Import substitution industrialization">Import substitution</a></li>

<li><a href="Trade_finance" title="Trade finance">Trade finance</a></li>

<li><a href="Trade_facilitation" title="Trade facilitation">Trade facilitation</a></li>

<li><a href="Trade_route" title="Trade route">Trade route</a></li>

<li><a href="Domestic_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestic trade">Domestic trade</a></li>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc; background: transparent; text-align: left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Trade_restriction" title="Trade restriction">Restrictions</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Trade_barrier" title="Trade barrier">Trade barriers</a></li>

<li><a href="Tariff" title="Tariff">Tariffs</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-tariff_barriers_to_trade" title="Non-tariff barriers to trade">Non-tariff barriers</a></li>

<li><a href="Import_quota" title="Import quota">Import quotas</a></li>

<li><a href="Tariff-rate_quota" title="Tariff-rate quota">Tariff-rate quotas</a></li>

<li><a href="Import_license" title="Import license">Import licenses</a></li>

<li><a href="Duty_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Duty (economics)">Customs duties</a></li>

<li><a href="Export_subsidy" title="Export subsidy">Export subsidies</a></li>

<li><a href="Technical_barriers_to_trade" title="Technical barriers to trade">Technical barriers</a></li>

<li><a href="Bribery" title="Bribery">Bribery</a></li>

<li><a href="Foreign_exchange_controls" title="Foreign exchange controls">Exchange rate controls</a></li>

<li><a href="Economic_sanctions" title="Economic sanctions">Embargo</a></li>

<li><a href="Safeguard_(international_law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Safeguard (international law)">Safeguards</a></li>

<li><a href="Countervailing_duties" title="Countervailing duties">Countervailing duties</a></li>

<li><a href="Dumping_(pricing_policy)" title="Dumping (pricing policy)">Anti-dumping duties</a></li>

<li><a href="Voluntary_export_restraint" title="Voluntary export restraint">Voluntary export restraints</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc; background: transparent; text-align: left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Timeline_of_international_trade" title="Timeline of international trade">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">Mercantilism</a></li>

<li><a href="Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">Laissez-faire</a></li>

<li><a href="Free_trade" title="Free trade">Free trade</a></li>

<li><a href="Economic_nationalism" title="Economic nationalism">Economic nationalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Economic_integration" title="Economic integration">Economic integration</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc; background: transparent; text-align: left;;color: var(--color-base)">Organizations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund">International Monetary Fund</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Trade_Centre" title="International Trade Centre">International Trade Centre</a></li>

<li><a href="World_Trade_Organization" title="World Trade Organization">World Trade Organization</a></li>

<li><a href="World_Customs_Organization" title="World Customs Organization">World Customs Organization</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="International Chamber of Commerce">International Chamber of Commerce</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc; background: transparent; text-align: left;;color: var(--color-base)">Economic integration</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Preferential_trading_area" title="Preferential trading area">Preferential trading area</a></li>

<li><a href="Free-trade_area" class="mw-redirect" title="Free-trade area">Free-trade area</a></li>

<li><a href="Currency_union" title="Currency union">Currency union</a></li>

<li><a href="Customs_union" title="Customs union">Customs union</a></li>

<li><a href="Single_market" title="Single market">Single market</a></li>

<li><a href="Economic_union" title="Economic union">Economic union</a></li>

<li><a href="Fiscal_union" title="Fiscal union">Fiscal union</a></li>

<li><a href="Customs_and_monetary_union" title="Customs and monetary union">Customs and monetary union</a></li>

<li><a href="Economic_and_monetary_union" title="Economic and monetary union">Economic and monetary union</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc; background: transparent; text-align: left;;color: var(--color-base)">Issues</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual property rights</a></li>

<li><a href="Smuggling" title="Smuggling">Smuggling</a></li>

<li><a href="Competition_law" title="Competition law">Competition policy</a></li>

<li><a href="Government_procurement" title="Government procurement">Government procurement</a></li>

<li><a href="Global_labor_arbitrage" title="Global labor arbitrage">Global labor arbitrage</a></li>

<li><a href="Outsourcing" title="Outsourcing">Outsourcing</a></li>

<li><a href="Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a></li>

<li><a href="Fair_trade" title="Fair trade">Fair trade</a></li>

<li><a href="Trade_justice" title="Trade justice">Trade justice</a></li>

<li><a href="Emissions_trading" title="Emissions trading">Emissions trading</a></li>

<li><a href="Economic_sanctions" title="Economic sanctions">Trade sanctions</a></li>

<li>War

<ul><li><a href="Currency_war" title="Currency war">Currency war</a></li>

<li><a href="Trade_facilitation_and_development" title="Trade facilitation and development">Trade costs</a></li>

<li><a href="Trade_war" title="Trade war">Trade war</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Trade_and_development" title="Trade and development">Trade and development</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc; background: transparent; text-align: left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Index_of_international_trade_articles" title="Index of international trade articles">Lists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="List_of_countries_by_imports" title="List of countries by imports">Imports</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_countries_by_exports" title="List of countries by exports">Exports</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_countries_by_net_goods_exports" title="List of countries by net goods exports">Balance of trade</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_tariffs" title="List of tariffs">Tariffs</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_largest_consumer_markets" title="List of largest consumer markets">Largest consumer markets</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_countries_by_leading_trade_partners" title="List of countries by leading trade partners">Leading trade partners</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc; background: transparent; text-align: left;;color: var(--color-base)">By country</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-bottom: 0">

<ul><li><a href="Trade_mission" title="Trade mission">Trade mission</a></li>

<li><a href="Trading_nation" title="Trading nation">Trading nation</a></li>

<li><a href="Foreign_trade_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign trade of the United States">United States</a></li>

<li><a href="Foreign_trade_of_Argentina" title="Foreign trade of Argentina">Argentina</a></li>

<li><a href="Foreign_trade_of_Pakistan" title="Foreign trade of Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li>

<li><a href="Foreign_trade_of_Romania" title="Foreign trade of Romania">Romania</a></li>

<li><a href="Foreign_trade_of_Vietnam" title="Foreign trade of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li>

<li><a href="Foreign_trade_of_India" title="Foreign trade of India">India</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc; background: transparent; text-align: left;;color: var(--color-base)">Theory</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Comparative_advantage" title="Comparative advantage">Comparative advantage</a></li>

<li><a href="Competitive_advantage" title="Competitive advantage">Competitive advantage</a></li>

<li><a href="Heckscher%E2%80%93Ohlin_model" title="Heckscher–Ohlin model">Heckscher–Ohlin model</a></li>

<li><a href="New_trade_theory" title="New trade theory">New trade theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Economic_geography" title="Economic geography">Economic geography</a></li>

<li><a href="Intra-industry_trade" title="Intra-industry trade">Intra-industry trade</a></li>

<li><a href="Gravity_model_of_trade" title="Gravity model of trade">Gravity model of trade</a></li>

<li><a href="International_trade#Ricardian_theory_of_international_trade" title="International trade">Ricardian trade theories</a></li>

<li><a href="Balassa%E2%80%93Samuelson_effect" title="Balassa–Samuelson effect">Balassa–Samuelson effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Linder_hypothesis" title="Linder hypothesis">Linder hypothesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Leontief_paradox" title="Leontief paradox">Leontief paradox</a></li>

<li><a href="Lerner_symmetry_theorem" title="Lerner symmetry theorem">Lerner symmetry theorem</a></li>

<li><a href="Terms_of_trade" title="Terms of trade">Terms of trade</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style></td></tr></tbody></table>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#efefef;padding:0.4em;"><a href="Economic_system" title="Economic system">Economic systems</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above">

<div class="center">Major types</div>

<ul><li><a href="Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">By ideology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Associative_economics" title="Associative economics">Associative</a></li>

<li><a href="Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalist</a>

<ul><li><a href="Corporate_capitalism" title="Corporate capitalism">Corporate</a></li>

<li><a href="Democratic_capitalism" title="Democratic capitalism">Democratic</a></li>

<li><a href="Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">Laissez-faire</a></li>

<li><a href="Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">Mercantilist</a>

<li><a href="Neoliberalism" title="Neoliberalism">Neoliberal</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_market_economy" title="Social market economy">Social market</a></li>

<li><a href="State_capitalism" title="State capitalism">State</a></li>

<li><a href="Welfare_capitalism" title="Welfare capitalism">Welfare</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Economic_democracy" title="Economic democracy">Democratic</a></li>

<li><a href="Developmentalism" title="Developmentalism">Developmentalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributist</a></li>

<li><a href="Economics_of_fascism" title="Economics of fascism">Fascist</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_economics" title="Feminist economics">Feminist</a></li>

<li><a href="Freiwirtschaft" title="Freiwirtschaft">Freiwirtschaft</a></li>

<li><a href="Georgism" title="Georgism">Georgist</a></li>

<li><a href="Green_economy" title="Green economy">Green</a></li>

<li><a href="Economic_nationalism" title="Economic nationalism">Nationalist</a>

<li>Religious

<ul><li><a href="Buddhist_economics" title="Buddhist economics">Buddhist economics</a></li>

<li><a href="Christian_finance" title="Christian finance">Christian</a>

<ul><li><a href="Sabbath_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Sabbath economics">Sabbath economics</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Islamic_economics" title="Islamic economics">Islamic</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Socialist_economics" title="Socialist economics">Socialist</a>

<ul><li><a href="Communism" title="Communism">Communist</a></li>

<li><a href="Market_socialism" title="Market socialism">Market socialist</a></li>

<li><a href="Mutualism_(movement)" title="Mutualism (movement)">Mutualist</a></li>

<li><a href="Participatory_economics" title="Participatory economics">Participatory</a></li>

<li><a href="Socialist_market_economy" title="Socialist market economy">Socialist market</a></li>

<li><a href="Socialist-oriented_market_economy" title="Socialist-oriented market economy">Socialist-oriented market</a></li>

<li><a href="State_socialism" title="State socialism">State</a></li>

<li><a href="Syndicalism" title="Syndicalism">Syndicalist</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Social_credit" title="Social credit">Social credit</a></li>

<li><a href="Traditional_economy" title="Traditional economy">Traditionalist</a>

<ul><li><a href="Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatist</a></li>

<li><a href="Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">By coordination</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Autarky" title="Autarky">Closed (autarky)</a></li>

<li><a href="Decentralized_planning_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Decentralized planning (economics)">Decentralized</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_economy" title="Digital economy">Digital</a></li>

<li><a href="Dirigisme" title="Dirigisme">Dirigist</a></li>

<li><a href="Informal_sector" class="mw-redirect" title="Informal sector">Informal</a></li>

<li><a href="Market_economy" title="Market economy">Market</a></li>

<li><a href="Mixed_economy" title="Mixed economy">Mixed</a></li>

<li><a href="Natural_economy" title="Natural economy">Natural</a></li>

<li><a href="Planned_economy" title="Planned economy">Planned</a></li>

<li><a href="Robinson_Crusoe_economy" title="Robinson Crusoe economy">Robinson Crusoe</a></li>

<li><a href="Sharing_economy" title="Sharing economy">Sharing</a></li>

<li><a href="Subsistence_economy" title="Subsistence economy">Subsistence</a></li>

<li><a href="Black_market" title="Black market">Underground</a></li>

<li><a href="Vertical_archipelago" title="Vertical archipelago">Vertical archipelago</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtual_economy" title="Virtual economy">Virtual</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">By regional model</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li>Asian

<ul><li><a href="East_Asian_model_of_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="East Asian model of capitalism">East Asian</a></li>

<li><a href="Beijing_Consensus" title="Beijing Consensus">Chinese</a></li>

<li><a href="Economy_of_Singapore" title="Economy of Singapore">Singaporean</a></li>

<li><a href="Kerala_model" title="Kerala model">Keralan</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="European_social_model" title="European social model">European</a>

<ul><li><a href="Anglo-Saxon_model" title="Anglo-Saxon model">Anglo-Saxon</a></li>

<li><a href="German_model" title="German model">German</a></li>

<li><a href="Nordic_model" title="Nordic model">Nordic</a></li>

<li><a href="Polder_model" title="Polder model">Dutch</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_market_economy" title="Social market economy">Rhenish</a></li>

<li><a href="Soviet-type_economic_planning" title="Soviet-type economic planning">Soviet</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Latin America

<ul><li><a href="Socialism_of_the_21st_century" title="Socialism of the 21st century">Socialism of the 21st century</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Sectors</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Common_ownership" title="Common ownership">Common ownership</a></li>

<li><a href="Private_sector" title="Private sector">Private</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_sector" title="Public sector">Public</a></li>

<li><a href="Voluntary_sector" title="Voluntary sector">Voluntary</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Property types</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Collective_ownership" title="Collective ownership">Collective ownership</a></li>

<li><a href="Commons" title="Commons">Commons</a> (<a href="Common_ownership" title="Common ownership">Common ownership</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Private_property" title="Private property">Private property</a></li>

<li><a href="State_ownership" title="State ownership">State ownership</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_ownership" title="Social ownership">Social ownership</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Transition</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Collective_farming" title="Collective farming">Collectivization</a></li>

<li><a href="Communization" title="Communization">Communization</a></li>

<li><a href="Corporatization" title="Corporatization">Corporatization</a></li>

<li><a href="Demutualization" title="Demutualization">Demutualization</a></li>

<li><a href="Deregulation" title="Deregulation">Deregulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Expropriation" class="mw-redirect" title="Expropriation">Expropriation</a></li>

<li><a href="Financialization" title="Financialization">Financialization</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberalization" title="Liberalization">Liberalization</a></li>

<li><a href="Marketization" title="Marketization">Marketization</a></li>

<li><a href="Municipalization" title="Municipalization">Municipalization</a></li>

<li><a href="Mutualization" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutualization">Mutualization</a></li>

<li><a href="Nationalization" title="Nationalization">Nationalization</a></li>

<li><a href="Privatization" title="Privatization">Privatization</a></li>

<li><a href="Socialization_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialization (economics)">Socialization</a>

<ul><li><a href="Socialization_(Marxism)" title="Socialization (Marxism)">Marxist</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Coordination</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Barter" title="Barter">Barter</a></li>

<li><a href="Market_(economics)" title="Market (economics)">Market</a>

<li><a href="Regulated_market" title="Regulated market">Regulated</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Economic_planning" title="Economic planning">Planning</a>

<li><a href="Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">Cybernetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Indicative_planning" title="Indicative planning">Indicative</a></li>

<li><a href="Material_balance_planning" title="Material balance planning">Material balancing</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Price_system" title="Price system">Price</a></li>

<li><a href="Self-managed_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-managed economy">Self-managed</a>

<li><a href="Sharing_economy" title="Sharing economy">Sharing</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_access" title="Open access">Open access</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Other types</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Attention_economy" title="Attention economy">Attention</a></li>

<li><a href="Commons-based_peer_production" title="Commons-based peer production">Commons-based peer production</a></li>

<li><a href="Expeditionary_economics" title="Expeditionary economics">Expeditionary</a></li>

<li><a href="Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">Hunter-gatherer</a></li>

<li><a href="Inclusive_Democracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Inclusive Democracy">Inclusive Democracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_economy" title="Information economy">Information</a></li>

<li><a href="Manorialism" title="Manorialism">Manorialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Newly_industrialized_country" title="Newly industrialized country">Newly industrialized</a></li>

<li><a href="Palace_economy" title="Palace economy">Palace</a></li>

<li><a href="Plantation_economy" title="Plantation economy">Plantation</a></li>

<li><a href="Plutonomy" title="Plutonomy">Plutonomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Post-capitalism" title="Post-capitalism">Post-capitalist</a></li>

<li><a href="Post-industrial_economy" title="Post-industrial economy">Post-industrial</a></li>

<li><a href="Post-scarcity_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-scarcity economy">Post-scarcity</a></li>

<li><a href="Resource-based_economy" title="Resource-based economy">Resource-based</a></li>

<li><a href="Token_economy" title="Token economy">Token</a></li>

<li><a href="Traditional_economy" title="Traditional economy">Traditional</a></li>

<li><a href="Transition_economy" title="Transition economy">Transition</a></li>

<li><a href="World_economy" title="World economy">World</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist" style="line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold;">

<ul><li> <a href="Portal%3ABusiness" title="Portal:Business">Business portal</a></li>

<li> <a href="Portal%3AEconomics" title="Portal:Economics">Economics portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"></td></tr></tbody></table>

Protectionism, sometimes referred to as trade protectionism, is the <a href="Economic_policy" title="Economic policy">economic policy</a> of restricting imports from other countries through methods such as <a href="Tariff" title="Tariff">tariffs</a> on imported goods, <a href="Import_quota" title="Import quota">import quotas</a>, and a variety of other government regulations. Proponents argue that protectionist policies shield the producers, businesses, and workers of the <a href="Import_substitution_industrialization" title="Import substitution industrialization">import-competing sector</a> in the country from foreign competitors and raise <a href="Government_revenue" title="Government revenue">government revenue</a>. Opponents argue that protectionist policies reduce <a href="Trade" title="Trade">trade</a>, and adversely affect consumers in general (by raising the cost of imported goods) as well as the producers and workers in export sectors, both in the country implementing protectionist policies and in the countries against which the protections are implemented.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a>

Protectionism has been advocated mainly by parties that hold <a href="Economic_nationalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic nationalist">economic nationalist</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[a]</a> positions, while <a href="Economically_liberal" class="mw-redirect" title="Economically liberal">economically liberal</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[b]</a> political parties generally support <a href="Free_trade" title="Free trade">free trade</a>.<a href="#cite_note-4">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[6]</a>

There is a consensus among economists that protectionism has a negative effect on economic growth and economic welfare,<a href="#cite_note-9">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-nytimes.com-10">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[10]</a> while free trade and the reduction of <a href="Trade_barrier" title="Trade barrier">trade barriers</a> have a significantly positive effect on <a href="Economic_growth" title="Economic growth">economic growth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nytimes.com-10">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-See_P_1994-13">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-IGMFreeTrade-14">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Import_Duties-15">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[15]</a> Many mainstream economists, such as <a href="Douglas_Irwin" title="Douglas Irwin">Douglas Irwin</a>, have implicated protectionism as an important contributing factor in some economic crises, most notably the <a href="Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>.<a href="#cite_note-18">[16]</a> A more reserved perspective is offered by <a href="New_Keynesian_economics" title="New Keynesian economics">New Keynesian</a> economist <a href="Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Paul Krugman</a>, who argues that tariffs were not the main cause of the Great Depression but rather a response to it, and that protectionism is a minor source of allocative inefficiency.<a href="#cite_note-19">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[18]</a> Although <a href="Trade_liberalization" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade liberalization">trade liberalization</a> can sometimes result in unequally distributed losses and gains, and can, in the <a href="Short_run" class="mw-redirect" title="Short run">short run</a>, cause economic dislocation of workers in import-competing sectors,<a href="#cite_note-21">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Xiong_2012b_155-22">[20]</a> free trade lowers the costs of goods and services for both producers and consumers.<a href="#cite_note-23">[21]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Protectionist_policies">Protectionist policies</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Tariff" title="Tariff">Tariff</a></div>

A variety of policies have been used to achieve protectionist goals. These include:

<ul><li><a href="Tariff" title="Tariff">Tariffs</a> and <a href="Import_quota" title="Import quota">import quotas</a> are the most common types of protectionist policies.<a href="#cite_note-Essentials-24">[22]</a> A tariff is an <a href="Excise_tax" class="mw-redirect" title="Excise tax">excise tax</a> levied on imported goods. Originally imposed to raise government revenue, modern tariffs are now used primarily to protect domestic producers and wage rates from lower-priced importers. An import quota is a limit on the volume of a good that may be legally imported, usually established through an import licensing regime.<a href="#cite_note-Essentials-24">[22]</a></li>

<li>Protection of technologies, patents, technical and scientific knowledge <a href="#cite_note-25">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[25]</a></li>

<li>Restrictions on <a href="Foreign_direct_investment" title="Foreign direct investment">foreign direct investment</a>,<a href="#cite_note-28">[26]</a> such as restrictions on the acquisition of domestic firms by foreign investors.<a href="#cite_note-29">[27]</a></li>

<li>Administrative barriers: Countries are sometimes accused of using their various administrative rules (e.g., regarding <a href="Food_safety" title="Food safety">food safety</a>, environmental standards, electrical safety, etc.) as a way to introduce barriers to imports.</li>

<li><a href="International_commercial_law#Anti-dumping_measures" title="International commercial law">Anti-dumping legislation</a>: "<a href="Dumping_(pricing_policy)" title="Dumping (pricing policy)">Dumping</a>" is the practice of firms selling to export markets at lower prices than are charged in domestic markets. Supporters of anti-dumping laws argue that they prevent the import of cheaper foreign goods that would cause local firms to close down. However, in practice, anti-dumping laws are usually used to impose trade tariffs on foreign exporters.</li>

<li>Direct <a href="Subsidy" title="Subsidy">subsidies</a>: Government subsidies (in the form of lump-sum payments or cheap loans) are sometimes given to local firms that cannot compete well against imports. These subsidies are purported to "protect" local jobs and to help local firms adjust to the world markets.</li>

<li>Export <a href="Subsidy" title="Subsidy">subsidies</a>: Export subsidies are often used by governments to increase exports. Export subsidies have the opposite effect of export tariffs because exporters get payment, which is a percentage or proportion of the value of exported. Export subsidies increase the amount of trade, and in a country with floating exchange rates, have effects similar to import subsidies.</li>

<li><a href="Exchange_rate" title="Exchange rate">Exchange rate</a> control: A government may <a href="Currency_intervention" title="Currency intervention">intervene in the foreign exchange market</a> to lower the value of its currency by selling its currency in the foreign exchange market. Doing so will raise the cost of imports and lower the cost of exports, leading to an improvement in its <a href="Trade_balance" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade balance">trade balance</a>. However, such a policy is only effective in the short run, as it will lead to higher <a href="Inflation" title="Inflation">inflation</a> in the country in the long run, which will, in turn, raise the real cost of exports, and reduce the relative price of imports.</li>

<li>International <a href="Patent" title="Patent">patent</a> systems: There is an argument for viewing national patent systems as a cloak for protectionist trade policies at a national level. Two strands of this argument exist: one when patents held by one country form part of a system of exploitable relative advantage in trade negotiations against another, and a second where adhering to a worldwide system of patents confers "good citizenship" status despite 'de facto protectionism'. <a href="Peter_Drahos" title="Peter Drahos">Peter Drahos</a> explains that "States realized that patent systems could be used to cloak protectionist strategies. There were also reputational advantages for states to be seen to be sticking to intellectual property systems. One could attend the various revisions of the Paris and <a href="Berne_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Literary_and_Artistic_Works" class="mw-redirect" title="Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works">Berne conventions</a>, participate in the cosmopolitan moral dialogue about the need to protect the fruits of authorial labor and inventive genius...knowing all the while that one's domestic intellectual property system was a handy protectionist weapon."<a href="#cite_note-30">[28]</a></li>

<li>Political campaigns advocating domestic consumption (e.g. the "Buy American" campaign in the United States, which could be seen as an extra-legal promotion of protectionism.)</li>

<li>Preferential governmental spending, such as the <a href="Buy_American_Act" title="Buy American Act">Buy American Act</a>, federal legislation which called upon the United States government to prefer US-made products in its purchases.</li>

<li>Regulations obstructing the importation or sale of articles not made to local standards or barring certain types of promotion.</li></ul>

In the modern trade arena, many other initiatives besides tariffs have been called protectionist. For example, some commentators, such as <a href="Jagdish_Bhagwati" title="Jagdish Bhagwati">Jagdish Bhagwati</a>, see developed countries' efforts in imposing their own labor or environmental standards as protectionism. Also, the imposition of restrictive certification procedures on imports is seen in this light.

Further, others point out that free trade agreements often have protectionist provisions such as intellectual property, <a href="Copyright" title="Copyright">copyright</a>, and patent restrictions that benefit large corporations. These provisions restrict trade in music, movies, pharmaceuticals, software, and other manufactured items to high-cost producers with quotas from low-cost producers set to zero.<a href="#cite_note-31">[29]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impact">Impact</h2></div>

There is a broad consensus among economists that protectionism has a negative effect on economic growth and economic welfare, while <a href="Free_trade" title="Free trade">free trade</a> and the reduction of <a href="Trade_barrier" title="Trade barrier">trade barriers</a> has a positive effect on economic growth.<a href="#cite_note-See_P_1994-13">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-IGMFreeTrade-14">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Import_Duties-15">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-nytimes.com-10">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-:6-34">[32]</a> However, protectionism can be used to raise government revenue and enable access to intellectual property, including essential medicines.<a href="#cite_note-35">[33]</a>

Protectionism is frequently criticized by economists as harming the people it is intended to help. Mainstream <a href="Economist" title="Economist">economists</a> instead support free trade.<a href="#cite_note-FreeToChoose-36">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-Krugman-37">[35]</a> The principle of <a href="Comparative_advantage" title="Comparative advantage">comparative advantage</a> shows that the gains from free trade outweigh any losses as free trade creates more jobs than it destroys because it allows countries to specialize in the production of goods and services in which they have a comparative advantage.<a href="#cite_note-38">[36]</a> Protectionism results in <a href="Deadweight_loss" title="Deadweight loss">deadweight loss</a>; this loss to overall welfare gives no-one any benefit, unlike in a free market (without trade barriers), where there is no such total loss. Economist Stephen P. Magee claims the benefits of free trade outweigh the losses by as much as 100 to 1.<a href="#cite_note-39">[37]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_impact">Economic impact</h3></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Living_standards">Living standards</h4></div>

A 2016 study found that "trade typically favors the poor", as they spend a greater share of their earnings on goods, as free trade reduces the costs of goods.<a href="#cite_note-40">[38]</a> Other research found that China's entry to the <a href="World_Trade_Organization" title="World Trade Organization">WTO</a> benefited US consumers, as the price of Chinese goods were substantially reduced.<a href="#cite_note-41">[39]</a> Harvard economist <a href="Dani_Rodrik" title="Dani Rodrik">Dani Rodrik</a> argues that while globalization and free trade does contribute to social problems, "a serious retreat into protectionism would hurt the many groups that benefit from trade and would result in the same kind of social conflicts that globalization itself generates. We have to recognize that erecting trade barriers will help in only a limited set of circumstances and that trade policy will rarely be the best response to the problems [of globalization]".<a href="#cite_note-42">[40]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Growth">Growth</h4></div>

An empirical study by Furceri et al. (2019) concluded that protectionist measures like tariff increases have a significant adverse impact on domestic output and productivity.<a href="#cite_note-43">[41]</a> A prominent 1999 study by Jeffrey A. Frankel and David H. Romer found while controlling for relevant factors, that free trade does have a positive impact on growth and incomes. The effect is quantitatively large and statistically significant.<a href="#cite_note-44">[42]</a>

Economist <a href="Arvind_Panagariya" title="Arvind Panagariya">Arvind Panagariya</a> criticizes the view that protectionism is good for growth. Such arguments, according to him, arise from "revisionist interpretation" of <a href="Four_Asian_Tigers" title="Four Asian Tigers">East Asian "tigers"</a>' economic history. The Asian tigers achieved a rapid increase in per capita income without any "redistributive social programs", through free trade, which advanced Western economies took a century to achieve.<a href="#cite_note-:6-34">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[43]</a>

According to economic historians Findlay and O'Rourke, there is a consensus in the economics literature that protectionist policies in the interwar period "hurt the world economy overall, although there is a debate about whether the effect was large or small."<a href="#cite_note-:3-46">[44]</a>

According to Dartmouth economist <a href="Douglas_Irwin" title="Douglas Irwin">Douglas Irwin</a>, "that there is a correlation between high tariffs and growth in the late nineteenth century cannot be denied. But correlation is not causation... there is no reason for necessarily thinking that import protection was a good policy just because the economic outcome was good: the outcome could have been driven by factors completely unrelated to the tariff, or perhaps could have been even better in the absence of protection."<a href="#cite_note-:2-47">[45]</a> Irwin furthermore writes that "few observers have argued outright that the high tariffs caused such growth."<a href="#cite_note-:2-47">[45]</a>

One study by the economic historian Brian Varian found no correlation between tariffs and growth among the Australian colonies in the late nineteenth century, a time when each of the colonies had the independence to set their own tariffs.<a href="#cite_note-48">[46]</a>

According to Oxford economic historian Kevin O'Rourke, "It seems clear that protection was important for the growth of US manufacturing in the first half of the 19th century; but this does not necessarily imply that the tariff was beneficial for GDP growth. Protectionists have often pointed to German and American industrialization during this period as evidence in favor of their position, but economic growth is influenced by many factors other than trade policy, and it is important to control for these when assessing the links between tariffs and growth."<a href="#cite_note-49">[47]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Developing_world">Developing world</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Infant_industry_argument" title="Infant industry argument">Infant industry argument</a> and <a href="Protectionism_in_the_United_States" title="Protectionism in the United States">Protectionism in the United States</a></div>

There is broad consensus among economists that free trade helps workers in developing countries, even though they are not subject to the stringent health and labor standards of developed countries. This is because "the growth of manufacturing—and of the myriad other jobs that the new export sector creates—has a ripple effect throughout the economy" that creates competition among producers, lifting wages and living conditions.<a href="#cite_note-50">[48]</a> The Nobel laureates <a href="Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Milton Friedman</a> and <a href="Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Paul Krugman</a> have argued for free trade as a model for <a href="Economic_development" title="Economic development">economic development</a>.<a href="#cite_note-See_P_1994-13">[11]</a> <a href="Alan_Greenspan" title="Alan Greenspan">Alan Greenspan</a>, former chair of the American <a href="Federal_Reserve" title="Federal Reserve">Federal Reserve</a>, has criticized protectionist proposals as leading "to an atrophy of our competitive ability. ... If the protectionist route is followed, newer, more efficient industries will have less scope to expand, and overall output and economic welfare will suffer."<a href="#cite_note-51">[49]</a>

Protectionists postulate that new industries may require protection from entrenched foreign competition in order to develop. Mainstream economists do concede that tariffs can in the short-term help domestic industries to develop but are contingent on the short-term nature of the protective tariffs and the ability of the government to pick the winners.<a href="#cite_note-52">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-53">[51]</a> The problems are that protective tariffs will not be reduced after the infant industry reaches a foothold, and that governments will not pick industries that are likely to succeed.<a href="#cite_note-:4-53">[51]</a> Economists have identified a number of cases across different countries and industries where attempts to shelter infant industries failed.<a href="#cite_note-54">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[56]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Intellectual_property">Intellectual property</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="TRIPS_Agreement" title="TRIPS Agreement">TRIPS Agreement</a> and <a href="Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual property</a></div>

The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) is an <a href="International_agreement" class="mw-redirect" title="International agreement">international legal agreement</a> between all the member nations of the <a href="World_Trade_Organization" title="World Trade Organization">World Trade Organization</a> (WTO). It establishes minimum standards for the regulation by national governments of different forms of <a href="Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">intellectual property</a> (IP) as applied to nationals of other WTO member nations.<a href="#cite_note-59">[57]</a> TRIPS was negotiated at the end of the <a href="Uruguay_Round" title="Uruguay Round">Uruguay Round</a> of the <a href="General_Agreement_on_Tariffs_and_Trade" title="General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade">General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade</a> (GATT)<a href="#cite_note-60">[c]</a> between 1989 and 1990<a href="#cite_note-61">[58]</a> and is administered by the WTO. Statements by the World Bank indicate that TRIPS has not led to a demonstrable acceleration of investment to low-income countries, though it may have done so for middle-income countries.<a href="#cite_note-Xiong_2012b_155-22">[20]</a>

Critics argue that TRIPS limits the ability of governments to introduce competition for generic producers.<a href="#cite_note-Trade,_Doha-62">[59]</a> The TRIPS agreement allows the grant of compulsory licenses at a nation's discretion. TRIPS-plus conditions in the United States' FTAs with Australia, Jordan, Singapore and Vietnam have restricted the application of compulsory licenses to emergency situations, antitrust remedies, and cases of public non-commercial use.<a href="#cite_note-Trade,_Doha-62">[59]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Access_to_essential_medicines">Access to essential medicines</h4></div>

One of the most visible conflicts over TRIPS has been <a href="AIDS" class="mw-redirect" title="AIDS">AIDS</a> drugs in <a href="AIDS_in_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="AIDS in Africa">Africa</a>. Despite the role that patents have played in maintaining higher drug costs for public health programs across Africa, this controversy has not led to a revision of TRIPS. Instead, an interpretive statement, the <a href="Doha_Declaration_on_the_TRIPS_agreement_and_public_health" title="Doha Declaration on the TRIPS agreement and public health">Doha Declaration</a>, was issued in November 2001, which indicated that TRIPS should not prevent states from dealing with public health crises and allowed for <a href="Compulsory_license" title="Compulsory license">compulsory licenses</a>. After Doha, <a href="PhRMA" class="mw-redirect" title="PhRMA">PhRMA</a>, the United States and to a lesser extent other developed nations began working to minimize the effect of the declaration.<a href="#cite_note-63">[60]</a>

In 2020, conflicts re-emerged over patents, copyrights and trade secrets related to <a href="COVID-19_vaccine" title="COVID-19 vaccine">COVID-19 vaccines</a>, diagnostics and treatments. <a href="South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> and <a href="India" title="India">India</a> proposed that WTO grant a temporary waiver to enable more widespread production of the vaccines, since suppressing the virus as quickly as possible benefits the entire world.<a href="#cite_note-64">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[62]</a> The waivers would be in addition to the existing, but cumbersome, flexibilities in TRIPS allowing countries to impose compulsory licenses.<a href="#cite_note-66">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[64]</a> Over 100 developing nations supported the waiver but it was blocked by the G7 members.<a href="#cite_note-68">[65]</a> This blocking was condemned by 400 organizations including <a href="Doctors_Without_Borders" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctors Without Borders">Doctors Without Borders</a> and 115 members of the <a href="European_Parliament" title="European Parliament">European Parliament</a>.<a href="#cite_note-69">[66]</a> In June 2022, after extensive involvement of the <a href="European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>, the WTO instead adopted a watered-down agreement that focuses only on vaccine patents, excludes high-income countries and China, and contains few provisions that are not covered by existing flexibilities.<a href="#cite_note-70">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[68]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Armed_conflicts">Armed conflicts</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Opium_Wars" title="Opium Wars">Opium Wars</a> and <a href="Capitalist_peace" class="mw-redirect" title="Capitalist peace">Capitalist peace</a></div>

Protectionism has been attributed as a major cause of war. Proponents of this theory point to the constant warfare in the 17th and 18th centuries among European countries whose governments were predominantly <a href="Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">mercantilist</a> and protectionist, the <a href="American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>, which came about ostensibly due to British tariffs and taxes. According to a slogan of <a href="Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Frédéric Bastiat</a> (1801–1850), "When goods cannot cross borders, armies will."<a href="#cite_note-72">[69]</a>

On the other hand, archaeologist <a href="Lawrence_H._Keeley" title="Lawrence H. Keeley">Lawrence H. Keeley</a> argues in his book <a href="War_Before_Civilization" title="War Before Civilization">War Before Civilization</a> that disputes between trading partners escalate to war more frequently than disputes between nations that don't trade much with each other.<a href="#cite_note-73">[70]</a> The <a href="Opium_Wars" title="Opium Wars">Opium Wars</a> were fought between the <a href="United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">UK</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[d]</a> and <a href="Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">China</a> over the right of British merchants to engage in the free trade of <a href="Opium" title="Opium">opium</a>. For many opium users, what started as recreation soon became a punishing addiction: many people who stopped ingesting opium suffered chills, nausea, and cramps, and sometimes died from withdrawal. Once addicted, people would often do almost anything to continue to get access to the drug.<a href="#cite_note-75">[71]</a>

<a href="Barbara_Tuchman" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbara Tuchman">Barbara Tuchman</a> says both European intellectuals and leaders overestimated the power of <a href="Free_trade" title="Free trade">free trade</a> on the eve of <a href="World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. They believed that the interconnectedness of European nations through trade would stop a continent-wide war from breaking out, as the economic consequences would be too great. However, the assumption proved incorrect. For example, Tuchman noted that <a href="Helmuth_von_Moltke_the_Younger" title="Helmuth von Moltke the Younger">Helmuth von Moltke the Younger</a>, when warned of such consequences, refused to even consider them in his plans, arguing he was a "soldier," not an "economist."<a href="#cite_note-76">[72]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

In the 18th century, <a href="Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a> famously warned against the "interested sophistry" of industry, seeking to gain an advantage at the cost of the consumers.<a href="#cite_note-FreeToChoose-36">[34]</a> <a href="Friedrich_List" title="Friedrich List">Friedrich List</a> saw Adam Smith's views on <a href="Free_trade" title="Free trade">free trade</a> as disingenuous, believing that Smith advocated for free trade so that British industry could lock out underdeveloped foreign competition.<a href="#cite_note-77">[73]</a>

According to economic historians Douglas Irwin and Kevin O'Rourke, "shocks that emanate from brief financial crises tend to be transitory and have a little long-run effect on trade policy, whereas those that play out over longer periods (the early 1890s, early 1930s) may give rise to protectionism that is difficult to reverse. Regional wars also produce transitory shocks that have little impact on long-run trade policy, while global wars give rise to extensive government trade restrictions that can be difficult to reverse."<a href="#cite_note-:0-78">[74]</a>

One study shows that sudden shifts in comparative advantage for specific countries have led some countries to become protectionist: "The shift in comparative advantage associated with the opening up of New World frontiers, and the subsequent "grain invasion" of Europe, led to higher agricultural tariffs from the late 1870s onwards, which as we have seen reversed the move toward freer trade that had characterized mid-nineteenth-century Europe. In the decades after World War II, Japan's rapid rise led to trade friction with other countries. Japan's recovery was accompanied by a sharp increase in its exports of certain product categories: cotton textiles in the 1950s, steel in the 1960s, automobiles in the 1970s, and electronics in the 1980s. In each case, the rapid expansion in Japan's exports created difficulties for its trading partners and the use of protectionism as a shock absorber."<a href="#cite_note-:0-78">[74]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="China">China</h3></div>

In 2010, <a href="Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Paul Krugman</a> wrote that China pursues a mercantilist and predatory policy, i.e., it keeps its currency undervalued to accumulate trade surpluses by using capital flow controls. The Chinese government sells <a href="Renminbi" title="Renminbi">renminbi</a> and buys foreign currency to keep the renminbi low, giving the Chinese manufacturing sector a cost advantage over its competitors. China's surpluses drain US demand and slow economic recovery in other countries with which China trades. Krugman writes: "This is the most distorted exchange rate policy any great nation has ever followed". He notes that an undervalued renminbi is tantamount to imposing high <a href="Tariff" title="Tariff">tariffs</a> or providing export subsidies. A cheaper currency improves employment and competitiveness because it makes imports more expensive while making domestic products more attractive. He expects Chinese surpluses to destroy 1.4 million American jobs by 2011.<a href="#cite_note-79">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[80]</a>

In June 2015, the international community, through the <a href="International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund">IMF</a>, rejected this notion and assessed the renminbi as suggested to be no longer undervalued.<a href="#cite_note-88">[84]</a>

Later that year, American economist <a href="Charles_Calomiris" title="Charles Calomiris">Charles Calomiris</a> wrote that US presidential candidate at the time <a href="Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> had falsely characterized the trajectory of the renminbi's exchange rate in nominal terms and especially so when using the <a href="Exchange_rate#Real_exchange_rate_equilibrium_and_misalignment" title="Exchange rate">real exchange rate</a>, and that a recent devaluation by the <a href="People's_Bank_of_China" title="People's Bank of China">PBC</a> was a passive one where inaction would've led to an even steeper devaluation by market forces, understandably so after the disappearance of "a lot of [Chinese economic growth] low-hanging fruit that was easily picked in the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s."<a href="#cite_note-89">[85]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe">Europe</h3></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Continental_Europe">Continental Europe</h4></div>

Europe became increasingly protectionist during the eighteenth century.<a href="#cite_note-:3-46">[44]</a> Economic historians Findlay and O'Rourke write that in "the immediate aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars, European trade policies were almost universally protectionist", with the exceptions being smaller countries such as the Netherlands and Denmark.<a href="#cite_note-:3-46">[44]</a>

Europe increasingly liberalized its trade during the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-:1-90">[86]</a> Countries such as the Netherlands, Denmark, Portugal and Switzerland, and arguably Sweden and Belgium, had fully moved towards free trade prior to 1860.<a href="#cite_note-:1-90">[86]</a> Economic historians see the repeal of the <a href="Corn_Laws" title="Corn Laws">Corn Laws</a> in 1846 as the decisive shift toward free trade in Britain.<a href="#cite_note-:1-90">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[87]</a> A 1990 study by the Harvard economic historian <a href="Jeffrey_Williamson" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeffrey Williamson">Jeffrey Williamson</a> showed that the Corn Laws (which imposed restrictions and <a href="Trade_barrier" title="Trade barrier">tariffs</a> on imported <a href="Grain" title="Grain">grain</a>) substantially increased the cost of living for British workers, and hampered the British manufacturing sector by reducing the disposable incomes that British workers could have spent on manufactured goods.<a href="#cite_note-92">[88]</a> The shift towards liberalization in Britain occurred in part due to "the influence of economists like David Ricardo", but also due to "the growing power of urban interests".<a href="#cite_note-:1-90">[86]</a>

Findlay and O'Rourke characterize 1860 <a href="Cobden%E2%80%93Chevalier_Treaty" title="Cobden–Chevalier Treaty">Cobden Chevalier treaty</a> between France and the United Kingdom as "a decisive shift toward European free trade."<a href="#cite_note-:1-90">[86]</a> This treaty was followed by numerous free trade agreements: "France and Belgium signed a treaty in 1861; a Franco-Prussian treaty was signed in 1862; Italy entered the "network of Cobden-Chevalier treaties" in 1863 (Bairoch 1989, 40); Switzerland in 1864; Sweden, Norway, Spain, the Netherlands, and the Hanseatic towns in 1865; and Austria in 1866. By 1877, less than two decades after the Cobden Chevalier treaty and three decades after British Repeal, Germany "had virtually become a free trade country" (Bairoch, 41). Average duties on manufactured products had declined to 9–12% on the Continent, a far cry from the 50% British tariffs, and numerous prohibitions elsewhere, of the immediate post-Waterloo era (Bairoch, table 3, p. 6, and table 5, p. 42)."<a href="#cite_note-:1-90">[86]</a>

Some European powers did not liberalize during the 19th century, such as the Russian Empire and Austro-Hungarian Empire which remained highly protectionist. The <a href="Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> also became increasingly protectionist.<a href="#cite_note-93">[89]</a> In the Ottoman Empire's case, however, it previously had <a href="Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">liberal</a> <a href="Free_trade" title="Free trade">free trade</a> policies during the 18th to early 19th centuries, which <a href="British_prime_minister" class="mw-redirect" title="British prime minister">British prime minister</a> <a href="Benjamin_Disraeli" title="Benjamin Disraeli">Benjamin Disraeli</a> cited as "an instance of the injury done by unrestrained competition" in the 1846 <a href="Corn_Laws" title="Corn Laws">Corn Laws</a> debate, arguing that it destroyed what had been "some of the finest manufacturers of the world" in 1812.<a href="#cite_note-Paradoxes-94">[90]</a>

The countries of Western Europe began to steadily liberalize their economies after World War II and the protectionism of the interwar period,<a href="#cite_note-:3-46">[44]</a> but <a href="John_Tsang" title="John Tsang">John Tsang</a>, then <a href="Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>'s <a href="Secretary_for_Commerce%2C_Industry_and_Technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Secretary for Commerce, Industry and Technology">Secretary for Commerce, Industry and Technology</a> and chair of the <a href="World_Trade_Organization_Ministerial_Conference_of_2005" title="World Trade Organization Ministerial Conference of 2005">Sixth Ministerial Conference of the World Trade Organization</a>, MC6, commented in 2005 that the EU spent around €70 billion per year on "trade-distorting support".<a href="#cite_note-95">[91]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Economic_history_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Economic history of the United Kingdom">Economic history of the United Kingdom</a></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></div>

<table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border: 4px double #009EFF; border-spacing:0.2em 0;color: var(--color-base, #000);"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">This article is part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#009EFF!important; padding-top:0.25em; font-size:160%; font-weight:normal; color:black; line-height:1em"><a href="Conservatism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Conservatism in the United Kingdom">Conservatism in the United Kingdom</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #009EFF; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Ideologies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Burkean_conservatism" class="mw-redirect" title="Burkean conservatism">Burkean</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_positions_of_David_Cameron" title="Political positions of David Cameron">Cameronism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Muscular_liberalism" title="Muscular liberalism">Muscular liberalism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Civic_conservatism" class="mw-redirect" title="Civic conservatism">Civic</a></li>

<li><a href="Compassionate_conservatism" title="Compassionate conservatism">Compassionate</a></li>

<li><a href="Euroscepticism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Euroscepticism in the United Kingdom">Euroscepticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Green_conservatism#United_Kingdom" title="Green conservatism">Green</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberal_conservatism" title="Liberal conservatism">Liberal</a>

<ul><li><a href="Classical_liberalism#Great_Britain" title="Classical liberalism">Classical</a></li>

<li><a href="Thatcherism" title="Thatcherism">Thatcherism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="One-nation_conservatism" title="One-nation conservatism">One-nation</a></li>

<li><a href="Powellism" title="Powellism">Powellism</a></li>

<li><a href="Progressive_conservatism" title="Progressive conservatism">Progressive</a></li>

<li><a href="Tory" title="Tory">Toryism</a>

<li><a href="Tory_socialism" title="Tory socialism">Social</a></li>

<li><a href="Ultra-Tories" title="Ultra-Tories">Ultra</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #009EFF; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Principles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Anglo-Saxonism_in_the_19th_century" title="Anglo-Saxonism in the 19th century">Anglo-Saxonism</a></li>

<li><a href="Unionism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Unionism in the United Kingdom">British unionism</a></li>

<li><a href="Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a>

<ul><li><a href="British_nobility" title="British nobility">Aristocracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Noblesse_oblige" title="Noblesse oblige">Noblesse oblige</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Familialism#United_Kingdom" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li>

<li><a href="British_Empire" title="British Empire">Imperialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Loyalism" title="Loyalism">Loyalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Moral absolutism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Victorian_morality" title="Victorian morality">Victorian</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a>

<ul><li><a href="British_nationalism" title="British nationalism">British</a></li>

<li><a href="English_nationalism" title="English nationalism">English</a></li>

<li><a href="Ulster_nationalism" title="Ulster nationalism">Northern Irish</a></li>

<li><a href="Scottish_nationalism" title="Scottish nationalism">Scottish</a></li>

<li><a href="Welsh_nationalism" title="Welsh nationalism">Welsh</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li>

<li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#In_the_United_Kingdom">Protectionism</a></li>

<li><a href="Monarchy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Monarchy of the United Kingdom">Royalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_hierarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Social hierarchy">Social hierarchy</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_market_economy#United_Kingdom" title="Social market economy">Social market economy</a></li>

<li><a href="Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty</a></li>

<li><a href="State_church" class="mw-redirect" title="State church">State church</a></li>

<li><a href="Tradition" title="Tradition">Tradition</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #009EFF; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Cavalier" title="Cavalier">Cavalier</a></li>

<li><a href="Stuart_Restoration" title="Stuart Restoration">Stuart Restoration</a></li>

<li><a href="Tories_(British_political_party)" title="Tories (British political party)">Tories</a></li>

<li><a href="Jacobitism" title="Jacobitism">Jacobitism</a></li>

<li><a href="1794_Treason_Trials" title="1794 Treason Trials">1794 Treason Trials</a></li>

<li><a href="Old_Whigs" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Whigs">Old Whigs</a></li>

<li><a href="Oxford_Movement" title="Oxford Movement">Oxford Movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Young_England" title="Young England">Young England</a></li>

<li><a href="Neo-Jacobite_Revival" title="Neo-Jacobite Revival">Neo-Jacobite Revival</a></li>

<li><a href="New_Right#United_Kingdom" title="New Right">New Right</a></li>

<li><a href="Wets_and_dries" title="Wets and dries">Wets and dries</a></li>

<li><a href="Brexit" title="Brexit">Brexit</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #009EFF; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Intellectuals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Walter_Bagehot" title="Walter Bagehot">Bagehot</a></li>

<li><a href="Hilaire_Belloc" title="Hilaire Belloc">Belloc</a></li>

<li><a href="Nigel_Biggar" title="Nigel Biggar">Biggar</a></li>

<li><a href="Phillip_Blond" title="Phillip Blond">Blond</a></li>

<li><a href="Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li>

<li><a href="Herbert_Butterfield" title="Herbert Butterfield">Butterfield</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li>

<li><a href="G._K._Chesterton" title="G. K. Chesterton">Chesterton</a></li>

<li><a href="Gregory_Clark_(economist)" title="Gregory Clark (economist)">Clark</a></li>

<li><a href="Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Coleridge</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Conquest" title="Robert Conquest">Conquest</a></li>

<li><a href="Theodore_Dalrymple" title="Theodore Dalrymple">Dalrymple</a></li>

<li><a href="Christopher_Dawson" title="Christopher Dawson">Dawson</a></li>

<li><a href="T._S._Eliot" title="T. S. Eliot">Eliot</a></li>

<li><a href="Geoffrey_Elton" title="Geoffrey Elton">Elton</a></li>

<li><a href="Niall_Ferguson" title="Niall Ferguson">Ferguson</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a></li>

<li><a href="Francis_Galton" title="Francis Galton">Galton</a></li>

<li><a href="Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Gibbon</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Haldane_(philosopher)" title="John Haldane (philosopher)">Haldane</a></li>

<li><a href="Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li>

<li><a href="T._E._Hulme" title="T. E. Hulme">Hulme</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Johnson_(writer)" title="Paul Johnson (writer)">Johnson (Paul)</a></li>

<li><a href="Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Johnson (Samuel)</a></li>

<li><a href="Rudyard_Kipling" title="Rudyard Kipling">Kipling</a></li>

<li><a href="Elie_Kedourie" title="Elie Kedourie">Kedourie</a></li>

<li><a href="Peter_Laslett" title="Peter Laslett">Laslett</a></li>

<li><a href="D._H._Lawrence" title="D. H. Lawrence">Lawrence</a></li>

<li><a href="Anthony_Ludovici" title="Anthony Ludovici">Ludovici</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Henry_Newman" title="John Henry Newman">Newman</a></li>

<li><a href="Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott (Michael)</a></li>

<li><a href="Neema_Parvini" title="Neema Parvini">Parvini</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">Ruskin</a></li>

<li><a href="Walter_Scott" title="Walter Scott">Scott</a></li>

<li><a href="Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Southey" title="Robert Southey">Southey</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Fitzjames_Stephen" title="James Fitzjames Stephen">Stephen</a></li>

<li><a href="Carl_R._Trueman" class="mw-redirect" title="Carl R. Trueman">Trueman</a></li>

<li><a href="J._D._Unwin" title="J. D. Unwin">Unwin</a></li>

<li><a href="Evelyn_Waugh" title="Evelyn Waugh">Waugh</a></li>

<li><a href="Hugh_Ross_Williamson" title="Hugh Ross Williamson">Williamson</a></li>

<li><a href="William_Wordsworth" title="William Wordsworth">Wordsworth</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #009EFF; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Lee_Anderson" title="Lee Anderson">Anderson</a></li>

<li><a href="Kemi_Badenoch" title="Kemi Badenoch">Badenoch</a></li>

<li><a href="Stanley_Baldwin" title="Stanley Baldwin">Baldwin</a></li>

<li><a href="Arthur_Balfour" title="Arthur Balfour">Balfour</a></li>

<li><a href="Suella_Braverman" title="Suella Braverman">Braverman</a></li>

<li><a href="Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li>

<li><a href="Rab_Butler" title="Rab Butler">Butler</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Cameron" title="David Cameron">Cameron</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Canning" title="George Canning">Canning</a></li>

<li><a href="Victor_Cazalet#Advocating_Jewish_homeland" title="Victor Cazalet">Cazalet</a></li>

<li><a href="Neville_Chamberlain" title="Neville Chamberlain">Chamberlain</a></li>

<li><a href="Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Churchill</a></li>

<li><a href="Kenneth_Clarke" title="Kenneth Clarke">Clarke</a></li>

<li><a href="Benjamin_Disraeli" title="Benjamin Disraeli">Disraeli</a></li>

<li><a href="Nigel_Farage" title="Nigel Farage">Farage</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Goldsmith" title="James Goldsmith">Goldsmith</a></li>

<li><a href="Daniel_Hannan" title="Daniel Hannan">Hannan</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Hayes_(British_politician)" title="John Hayes (British politician)">Hayes</a></li>

<li><a href="Michael_Howard" title="Michael Howard">Howard</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Jenrick" title="Robert Jenrick">Jenrick</a></li>

<li><a href="Boris_Johnson" title="Boris Johnson">Johnson (Boris)</a></li>

<li><a href="Keith_Joseph" title="Keith Joseph">Joseph</a></li>

<li><a href="Edward_Leigh" title="Edward Leigh">Leigh</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Jenkinson%2C_2nd_Earl_of_Liverpool" title="Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool">Liverpool</a></li>

<li><a href="Harold_Macmillan" title="Harold Macmillan">Macmillan</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Major" title="John Major">Major</a></li>

<li><a href="Enoch_Powell" title="Enoch Powell">Powell</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Gascoyne-Cecil%2C_3rd_Marquess_of_Salisbury" title="Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury">Salisbury</a></li>

<li><a href="Margaret_Thatcher" title="Margaret Thatcher">Thatcher</a></li>

<li><a href="Peter_Whittle_(politician)" title="Peter Whittle (politician)">Whittle</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Willetts" title="David Willetts">Willetts</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #009EFF; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Commentators</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<li><a href="Carl_Benjamin" title="Carl Benjamin">Benjamin</a></li>

<li><a href="Jonathan_Bowden#Conservative_Party" title="Jonathan Bowden">Bowden</a></li>

<li><a href="Richard_Francis_Burton" title="Richard Francis Burton">Burton</a></li>

<li><a href="Jeremy_Clarkson#Politics" title="Jeremy Clarkson">Clarkson</a></li>

<li><a href="Nick_Cohen" title="Nick Cohen">Cohen</a></li>

<li><a href="Frederick_Forsyth" title="Frederick Forsyth">Forsyth (Frederick)</a></li>

<li><a href="Matthew_Goodwin" title="Matthew Goodwin">Goodwin</a></li>

<li><a href="Merlin_Hanbury-Tracy%2C_7th_Baron_Sudeley" title="Merlin Hanbury-Tracy, 7th Baron Sudeley">Hanbury-Tracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Peter_Hitchens" title="Peter Hitchens">Hitchens</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Johnson_(writer)" title="Paul Johnson (writer)">Johnson (Paul)</a></li>

<li><a href="Konstantin_Kisin" title="Konstantin Kisin">Kisin</a></li>

<li><a href="Rod_Liddle" title="Rod Liddle">Liddle</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Moore%2C_Baron_Moore_of_Etchingham" title="Charles Moore, Baron Moore of Etchingham">Moore</a></li>

<li><a href="Piers_Morgan" title="Piers Morgan">Morgan</a></li>

<li><a href="Douglas_Murray_(author)" title="Douglas Murray (author)">Murray</a></li>

<li><a href="Fraser_Nelson" title="Fraser Nelson">Nelson</a></li>

<li><a href="Isabel_Oakeshott" title="Isabel Oakeshott">Oakeshott (Isabel)</a></li>

<li><a href="John_O'Sullivan_(columnist)" title="John O'Sullivan (columnist)">O'Sullivan</a></li>

<li><a href="Joseph_Pearce" title="Joseph Pearce">Pearce</a></li>

<li><a href="Louise_Perry" title="Louise Perry">Perry</a></li>

<li><a href="Andrew_Roberts%2C_Baron_Roberts_of_Belgravia" title="Andrew Roberts, Baron Roberts of Belgravia">Roberts</a></li>

<li><a href="Vaughan_Smith" title="Vaughan Smith">Smith</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Starkey" title="David Starkey">Starkey</a></li>

<li><a href="Andrew_Sullivan" title="Andrew Sullivan">Sullivan</a></li>

<li><a href="Derek_Turner_(journalist)" title="Derek Turner (journalist)">Turner</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Joseph_Watson" title="Paul Joseph Watson">Watson</a></li>

<li><a href="Colin_Welch" title="Colin Welch">Welch</a></li>

<li><a href="Peregrine_Worsthorne" title="Peregrine Worsthorne">Worsthorne</a></li>

<li><a href="Toby_Young" title="Toby Young">Young</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #009EFF; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Literature</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a> (1790)</li>

<li>"<a href="Tamworth_Manifesto" title="Tamworth Manifesto">Tamworth Manifesto</a>" (1834)</li>

<li><a href="On_Heroes%2C_Hero-Worship%2C_%26_the_Heroic_in_History" title="On Heroes, Hero-Worship, & the Heroic in History">On Heroes</a> (1841)</li>

<li><a href="Coningsby_(novel)" title="Coningsby (novel)">Coningsby</a> (1844)</li>

<li><a href="Sybil_(novel)" title="Sybil (novel)">Sybil</a> (1845)</li>

<li><a href="Latter-Day_Pamphlets" title="Latter-Day Pamphlets">Latter-Day Pamphlets</a> (1850)</li>

<li><a href="Culture_and_Anarchy" title="Culture and Anarchy">Culture and Anarchy</a> (1867–68)</li>

<li><a href="Orthodoxy_(book)" title="Orthodoxy (book)">Orthodoxy</a> (1908)</li>

<li><a href="The_Servile_State" title="The Servile State">The Servile State</a> (1912)</li>

<li>"<a href="Tradition_and_the_Individual_Talent" title="Tradition and the Individual Talent">Tradition and the Individual Talent</a>" (1919)</li>

<li><a href="The_Whig_Interpretation_of_History" class="mw-redirect" title="The Whig Interpretation of History">The Whig Interpretation of History</a> (1931)</li>

<li><a href="The_Abolition_of_Man" title="The Abolition of Man">The Abolition of Man</a> (1943)</li>

<li><a href="The_Left_Was_Never_Right" title="The Left Was Never Right">The Left Was Never Right</a> (1945)</li>

<li>"<a href="Rivers_of_Blood_speech" title="Rivers of Blood speech">Rivers of Blood</a>" (1968)</li>

<li><a href="The_Abolition_of_Britain" title="The Abolition of Britain">The Abolition of Britain</a> (1999)</li>

<li><a href="Our_Culture%2C_What's_Left_of_It" title="Our Culture, What's Left of It">Our Culture, What's Left of It</a> (2005)</li>

<li><a href="The_Rage_Against_God" title="The Rage Against God">The Rage Against God</a> (2010)</li>

<li><a href="The_Great_Degeneration" title="The Great Degeneration">The Great Degeneration</a> (2013)</li>

<li><a href="How_to_Be_a_Conservative" title="How to Be a Conservative">How to Be a Conservative</a> (2014)</li>

<li><a href="Conservatism%3A_An_Invitation_to_the_Great_Tradition" title="Conservatism: An Invitation to the Great Tradition">Conservatism</a> (2017)</li>

<li><a href="The_Strange_Death_of_Europe" title="The Strange Death of Europe">The Strange Death of Europe</a> (2017)</li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #009EFF; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Parties</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">Active

<ul><li><a href="Alliance_EPP%3A_European_People's_Party_UK" title="Alliance EPP: European People's Party UK">Alliance EPP: European People's Party UK</a></li>

<li><a href="Christian_Party_(UK)" title="Christian Party (UK)">Christian Party</a></li>

<li><a href="Christian_Peoples_Alliance" title="Christian Peoples Alliance">Christian Peoples Alliance</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservative_Party_(UK)" title="Conservative Party (UK)">Conservative and Unionist Party</a>

<ul><li><a href="Common_Sense_Group" title="Common Sense Group">Common Sense Group</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservative_Future" title="Conservative Future">Conservative Future</a> (Defunct)</li>

<li><a href="Young_Conservatives_(UK)" title="Young Conservatives (UK)">Young Conservatives</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Democratic_Unionist_Party" title="Democratic Unionist Party">Democratic Unionist Party</a></li>

<li><a href="Heritage_Party_(UK)" title="Heritage Party (UK)">Heritage Party</a></li>

<li><a href="Reform_UK" title="Reform UK">Reform UK</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_Democratic_Party_(UK%2C_1990%E2%80%93present)" title="Social Democratic Party (UK, 1990–present)">Social Democratic Party (UK, 1990–present)</a></li>

<li><a href="Traditional_Unionist_Voice" title="Traditional Unionist Voice">Traditional Unionist Voice</a></li>

<li><a href="UK_Independence_Party" title="UK Independence Party">UK Independence Party</a></li>

<li><a href="Ulster_Unionist_Party" title="Ulster Unionist Party">Ulster Unionist Party</a></li>

<li><a href="Workers_Party_of_Britain" title="Workers Party of Britain">Workers Party of Britain</a></li></ul>

Defunct

<ul><li><a href="For_Britain_Movement" title="For Britain Movement">For Britain Movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Tories_(British_political_party)" title="Tories (British political party)">Tories</a></li>

<li><a href="Veterans_and_People's_Party" title="Veterans and People's Party">Veterans and People's Party</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #009EFF; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Activists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Liam_Booth-Smith%2C_Baron_Booth-Smith" title="Liam Booth-Smith, Baron Booth-Smith">Booth-Smith</a></li>

<li><a href="Jonathan_Bowden#Conservative_Party" title="Jonathan Bowden">Bowden</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Forsyth_(political_aide)" title="James Forsyth (political aide)">Forsyth (James)</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Goldsmith" title="James Goldsmith">Goldsmith</a></li>

<li><a href="Peter_Hitchens" title="Peter Hitchens">Hitchens</a></li>

<li><a href="Kellie-Jay_Keen-Minshull" title="Kellie-Jay Keen-Minshull">Keen-Minshull</a></li>

<li><a href="Mark_Littlewood" title="Mark Littlewood">Littlewood</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Marshall_(investor)" title="Paul Marshall (investor)">Marshall</a></li>

<li><a href="Tim_Montgomerie" title="Tim Montgomerie">Montgomerie</a></li>

<li><a href="Douglas_Murray_(author)" title="Douglas Murray (author)">Murray</a></li>

<li><a href="Sebastian_Payne" title="Sebastian Payne">Payne</a></li>

<li><a href="Eleanor_Shawcross" class="mw-redirect" title="Eleanor Shawcross">Shawcross</a></li>

<li><a href="Philippa_Stroud%2C_Baroness_Stroud" title="Philippa Stroud, Baroness Stroud">Stroud</a></li>

<li><a href="Andrew_Sullivan" title="Andrew Sullivan">Sullivan</a></li>

<li><a href="Peregrine_Worsthorne" title="Peregrine Worsthorne">Worsthorne</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #009EFF; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Organisations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="55_Tufton_Street" title="55 Tufton Street">55 Tufton Street</a>

<ul><li><a href="Centre_for_Policy_Studies" title="Centre for Policy Studies">Centre for Policy Studies</a></li>

<li><a href="LGB_Alliance" title="LGB Alliance">LGB Alliance</a></li>

<li><a href="Migration_Watch_UK" title="Migration Watch UK">Migration Watch UK</a></li>

<li><a href="Policy_Exchange" title="Policy Exchange">Policy Exchange</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Bright_Blue_(organisation)" title="Bright Blue (organisation)">Bright Blue</a></li>

<li><a href="Blue_Collar_Conservativism" class="mw-redirect" title="Blue Collar Conservativism">Blue Collar Conservativism</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservative_Democratic_Alliance" title="Conservative Democratic Alliance">Conservative Democratic Alliance</a> (Defunct)</li>

<li><a href="Conservative_Philosophy_Group" title="Conservative Philosophy Group">Conservative Philosophy Group</a></li>

<li><a href="Cornerstone_Group" title="Cornerstone Group">Cornerstone Group</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Research_Group" title="European Research Group">European Research Group</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Freedom_Association" title="The Freedom Association">The Freedom Association</a></li>

<li><a href="Henry_Jackson_Society" title="Henry Jackson Society">Henry Jackson Society</a></li>

<li><a href="London_Swinton_Circle" title="London Swinton Circle">London Swinton Circle</a></li>

<li><a href="Monday_Club" title="Monday Club">Monday Club</a> (Defunct)</li>

<li><a href="National_Conservatism_Conference#2023_conference" title="National Conservatism Conference">NATCON</a></li>

<li><a href="One_Nation_Conservatives_(caucus)" title="One Nation Conservatives (caucus)">One Nation Conservatives</a></li>

<li><a href="Orange_Order" title="Orange Order">Orange Order</a></li>

<li><a href="Oxford_University_Conservative_Association" title="Oxford University Conservative Association">Oxford University Conservative Association</a></li>

<li><a href="Right_Book_Club" title="Right Book Club">Right Book Club</a> (Defunct)</li>

<li><a href="Revolutionary_Conservative_Caucus" title="Revolutionary Conservative Caucus">Revolutionary Conservative Caucus</a> (Defunct)</li>

<li><a href="Social_Affairs_Unit" title="Social Affairs Unit">Social Affairs Unit</a> (Defunct)</li>

<li><a href="Tory_Reform_Group" title="Tory Reform Group">Tory Reform Group</a></li>

<li><a href="Traditional_Britain_Group" title="Traditional Britain Group">Traditional Britain Group</a></li>

<li><a href="Turning_Point_UK" title="Turning Point UK">Turning Point UK</a></li>

<li><a href="Western_Goals_Institute" title="Western Goals Institute">Western Goals Institute</a> (Defunct)</li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #009EFF; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Media</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="font-style:italic">

<ul><li><a href="Anti-Jacobin_Review" title="Anti-Jacobin Review">Anti-Jacobin Review</a> (Defunct)</li>

<li><a href="Catholic_Herald" title="Catholic Herald">Catholic Herald</a></li>

<li><a href="ConservativeHome" title="ConservativeHome">ConservativeHome</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Critic_(modern_magazine)" title="The Critic (modern magazine)">The Critic</a></li>

<li><a href="Daily_Express" title="Daily Express">Daily Express</a>

<ul><li><a href="Daily_Express#Sunday_Express" title="Daily Express">Sunday Express</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Daily_Mail" title="Daily Mail">Daily Mail</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Daily_Sceptic" title="The Daily Sceptic">The Daily Sceptic</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Daily_Telegraph" title="The Daily Telegraph">The Daily Telegraph</a></li>

<li><a href="Evening_Standard" title="Evening Standard">Evening Standard</a></li>

<li><a href="Guido_Fawkes" title="Guido Fawkes">Guido Fawkes</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Mail_on_Sunday" title="The Mail on Sunday">The Mail on Sunday</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Salisbury_Review" title="The Salisbury Review">The Salisbury Review</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Spectator" title="The Spectator">The Spectator</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Sun_on_Sunday" class="mw-redirect" title="The Sun on Sunday">The Sun on Sunday</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Sunday_Telegraph" title="The Sunday Telegraph">The Sunday Telegraph</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Sunday_Times" title="The Sunday Times">The Sunday Times</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Times" title="The Times">The Times</a></li>

<li><a href="UnHerd" title="UnHerd">UnHerd</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #009EFF; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Anglo-Catholicism" title="Anglo-Catholicism">Anglo-Catholicism</a></li>

<li><a href="Antidisestablishmentarianism" title="Antidisestablishmentarianism">Antidisestablishmentarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Blue_Labour" title="Blue Labour">Blue Labour</a></li>

<li><a href="Cambridge_Analytica" title="Cambridge Analytica">Cambridge Analytica</a></li>

<li>"<a href="Noel_Skelton#Constructive_conservatism" title="Noel Skelton">Constructive conservatism</a>"</li>

<li><a href="List_of_British_conservatives" title="List of British conservatives">List of British conservatives</a></li>

<li><a href="Merry_England" title="Merry England">Merry England</a></li>

<li><a href="O'Sullivan's_first_law" class="mw-redirect" title="O'Sullivan's first law">O'Sullivan's first law</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_Thomas_Carlyle" title="Philosophy of Thomas Carlyle">Philosophy of Thomas Carlyle</a></li>

<li><a href="Politics_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Politics of the United Kingdom">Politics of the United Kingdom</a>

<ul><li><a href="Liberalism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Liberalism in the United Kingdom">Liberalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Libertarianism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Libertarianism in the United Kingdom">Libertarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Socialism_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialism in the United Kingdom">Socialism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Public_school_(United_Kingdom)" title="Public school (United Kingdom)">Public schools in the UK</a></li>

<li><a href="Remigration#United_Kingdom" title="Remigration">Remigration</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist" style="text-align:center; font-weight:normal; border-top:1px solid #009EFF; border-bottom:1px solid #009EFF;">

<ul><li> <a href="Portal%3AConservatism" title="Portal:Conservatism">Conservatism portal</a></li>

<li> <a href="Portal%3AUnited_Kingdom" title="Portal:United Kingdom">United Kingdom portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"></td></tr></tbody></table>

<a href="Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a>, and England in particular, became one of the most prosperous economic regions in the world between the late 17th century and the early 19th century as a result of being the birthplace of the <a href="Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> that began in the mid-eighteenth century.<a href="#cite_note-96">[92]</a> The government protected its merchants—and kept others out—by trade barriers, regulations, and subsidies to domestic industries in order to maximize exports from and minimize imports to the realm. The <a href="Navigation_Acts" title="Navigation Acts">Navigation Acts</a> of the late 17th century required all trade to be carried in English ships, manned by English crews (this later encompassed all Britons after the <a href="Acts_of_Union_1707" title="Acts of Union 1707">Acts of Union 1707</a> united Scotland with England).<a href="#cite_note-97">[93]</a> Colonists were required to send their produce and raw materials first of all to Britain, where the surplus was then sold-on by British merchants to other colonies in the British empire or bullion-earning external markets. The colonies were forbidden to trade directly with other nations or rival empires. The goal was to maintain the North American and Caribbean colonies as dependent agricultural economies geared towards producing raw materials for export to Britain. The growth of native industry was discouraged, in order to keep the colonies dependent on the United Kingdom for their finished goods.<a href="#cite_note-98">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[95]</a> From 1815 to 1870, the United Kingdom reaped the benefits of being the world's first modern, industrialised nation. It described itself as "the workshop of the world", meaning that its finished goods were produced so efficiently and cheaply that they could often undersell comparable, locally manufactured goods in almost any other market.<a href="#cite_note-100">[96]</a>

By the 1840s, the United Kingdom had adopted a free-trade policy, meaning open markets and no tariffs throughout the empire.<a href="#cite_note-101">[97]</a> The <a href="Corn_Laws" title="Corn Laws">Corn Laws</a> were <a href="Tariff" title="Tariff">tariffs</a> and other <a href="Trade_restriction" title="Trade restriction">trade restrictions</a> on imported food and <a href="Grain" title="Grain">corn</a> enforced in the <a href="United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom</a> between 1815 and 1846, and enhanced the profits and political power associated with <a href="Land_ownership" class="mw-redirect" title="Land ownership">land ownership</a>. The laws raised <a href="Food_prices" title="Food prices">food prices</a> and the costs of living for the British public, and hampered the growth of other British economic sectors, such as manufacturing, by reducing the disposable income of the British public.<a href="#cite_note-102">[98]</a> The Prime Minister, <a href="Robert_Peel" title="Robert Peel">Sir Robert Peel</a>, a <a href="Tories_(British_political_party)" title="Tories (British political party)">Conservative</a>, achieved repeal in 1846 with the support of the <a href="Whigs_(British_political_party)" title="Whigs (British political party)">Whigs</a> in Parliament, overcoming the opposition of most of his own party.

While the United Kingdom espoused a policy of free trade in the late nineteenth century, it was hardly the case that Britain was unaffected by the tariffs imposed by its trade partners—tariffs that generally increased during the late nineteenth century.<a href="#cite_note-103">[99]</a> According to one study, Britain's exports in 1902 would have been 57% higher, if all of Britain's trade partners also embraced free trade.<a href="#cite_note-104">[100]</a> The decline in overseas demand for British exports, resulting from foreign tariffs, contributed to the so-called late-Victorian climacteric in the British economy: a decline in the growth rate, i.e. a deceleration.<a href="#cite_note-105">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[102]</a>

During the interwar era, Britain abandoned free trade. There was a limited erosion of free trade during the 1920s under a patchwork of legislation including the <a href="Safeguarding_of_Industries_Act_1921" title="Safeguarding of Industries Act 1921">Safeguarding of Industries Act of 1921</a>, the <a href="Safeguarding_of_Industries_(Customs_Duties)_Act_1925" title="Safeguarding of Industries (Customs Duties) Act 1925">Safeguarding of Industries Act of 1925</a>, and the <a href="Finance_Act" title="Finance Act">Finance Act of 1925</a>. The <a href="Reginald_McKenna" title="Reginald McKenna">McKenna Duties</a>, which were imposed during the First World War on motorcars; clocks and watches; musical instruments; and cinematographic film were retained.<a href="#cite_note-107">[103]</a> Under commodities that were early to receive protection included matches, chemicals, scientific equipment, silk, rayon, embroidery, lace, cutlery, gloves, incandescent mantles, paper, pottery, enamelled holloware, and buttons.<a href="#cite_note-108">[104]</a> The duties on motorcars and rayon have been determined to have expanded output considerably.<a href="#cite_note-109">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[106]</a> Amid the Depression, Britain passed the <a href="Import_Duties_Act_1932" title="Import Duties Act 1932">Import Duties Act of 1932</a>, which imposed a general tariff of 10% on most imports and created the Import Duties Advisory Committee (IDAC), which could recommend even higher duties.<a href="#cite_note-111">[107]</a> Britain's protectionism in the early 1930s was shown by Lloyd and Solomou to have been productivity-enhancing.<a href="#cite_note-112">[108]</a>

The possessions of the <a href="East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a> in India, known as <a href="British_India" class="mw-redirect" title="British India">British India</a>, was the centrepiece of the British Empire, and because of an efficient taxation system it paid its own administrative expenses as well as the cost of the large <a href="British_Indian_Army" title="British Indian Army">British Indian Army</a>. In terms of trade, India turned only a small profit for British business.<a href="#cite_note-113">[109]</a> However, transfers to the British government was massive: in 1801 unrequited (unpaid, or paid from Indian-collected revenue) was about 30% of British domestic savings available for capital formation in the United Kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-jstor.org-114">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[111]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Latin_America">Latin America</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Economic_history_of_Argentina" title="Economic history of Argentina">Economic history of Argentina</a></div>

Most Latin American countries <a href="Decolonization_of_the_Americas" title="Decolonization of the Americas">gained independence</a> in the early 19th century, with notable exceptions including <a href="Captaincy_General_of_Cuba" title="Captaincy General of Cuba">Spanish Cuba</a> and <a href="Captaincy_General_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Captaincy General of Puerto Rico">Spanish Puerto Rico</a>. Following the achievement of their independence, many of the Latin American countries adopted protectionism. They both feared that any foreign competition would stomp out their newly created state and believed that lack of outside resources would drive domestic production.<a href="#cite_note-116">[112]</a> The protectionist behavior continued up until and during the World Wars. During World War 2, Latin America had, on average, the highest tariffs in the world.<a href="#cite_note-117">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[114]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Argentina">Argentina</h4></div>

Argentina, which had been insignificant during the first half of the 19th century, showed an impressive and sustained economic performance from the 1860s up until 1930. A 2018 study describes Argentina as a "super-exporter" during the period 1880–1929, and credits the boom to low trade costs and trade liberalization on one hand and on the other hand to the fact that Argentina "offered a diverse basket of products to the different European and American countries that consumed them". The study concludes "that Argentina took advantage of a multilateral and open economic system."<a href="#cite_note-119">[115]</a>

Beginning in the 1940s, <a href="Juan_Per%C3%B3n" title="Juan Perón">Juan Perón</a> erected a system of almost complete protectionism against imports, largely cutting off Argentina from the international market. Protectionism created a domestically oriented industry with high production costs, incapable of competing in international markets. At the same time, output of beef and grain, the country's main export goods, stagnated.<a href="#cite_note-cht-120">[116]</a> The IAPI began shortchanging growers and, when world grain prices dropped in the late 1940s, it stifled agricultural production, exports and business sentiment, in general.<a href="#cite_note-121">[117]</a> During this period Argentina's economy continued to grow, on average, but more slowly than the world as a whole or than its neighbors, Brazil and Chile. By 1954, while still leading the region, Argentina's GDP per capita had fallen to less than half of that of the United States, from being 80% equivalent before the 1930s.<a href="#cite_note-122">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[119]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Protectionism_in_the_United_States" title="Protectionism in the United States">Protectionism in the United States</a> and <a href="Tariffs_in_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Tariffs in United States history">Tariffs in United States history</a></div>

According to <a href="Douglas_Irwin" title="Douglas Irwin">Douglas Irwin</a>, tariffs have historically served three main purposes: generating revenue for the <a href="Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">federal government</a>, restricting imports to protect domestic producers, and securing reciprocity through <a href="Trade_agreement" title="Trade agreement">trade agreements</a> that reduce barriers. The history of <a href="United_States_trade_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="United States trade policy">U.S. trade policy</a> can be divided into three distinct eras, each characterized by the predominance of one goal. From 1790 to 1860, revenue considerations dominated, as import duties accounted for approximately 90% of federal government receipts. From 1861 to 1933, the growing reliance on <a href="Taxation_in_the_United_States" title="Taxation in the United States">domestic taxation</a> shifted the focus of tariffs toward protecting domestic industries. From 1934 to 2016, the primary objective of trade policy became the negotiation of trade agreements with other countries. The three eras of U.S. tariff history were separated by two major shocks—the Civil War and the Great Depression—that realigned political power and shifted trade policy objectives.<a href="#cite_note-ARE-124">[120]</a>

Political support by members of <a href="United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> often reflects the economic interests of producers rather than <a href="Consumer" title="Consumer">consumers</a>, as producers tend to be better organized politically and employ many voting workers. Trade-related interests differ across industries, depending on whether they focus on exports or face import competition. In general, workers in export-oriented sectors favor lower tariffs, while those in import-competing industries support higher tariffs.<a href="#cite_note-ARE-124">[120]</a>

Because congressional representation is geographically based, regional economic interests tend to shape consistent voting patterns over time. For much of U.S. history, the primary division over trade policy has been along the North–South axis. In the early 19th century, a <a href="Manufacturing_Belt" class="mw-redirect" title="Manufacturing Belt">manufacturing corridor</a> developed in the <a href="Northeastern_United_States" title="Northeastern United States">Northeast</a>, including <a href="Textile" title="Textile">textile</a> production in <a href="New_England" title="New England">New England</a> and <a href="Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> industries in <a href="Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a> and <a href="Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</a>, which often faced import competition. By contrast, the <a href="Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">South</a> specialized in agricultural exports such as <a href="Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</a> and <a href="Tobacco" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ARE-124">[120]</a>

In more recent times, representatives from the <a href="Rust_Belt" title="Rust Belt">Rust Belt</a>—spanning from <a href="Upstate_New_York" title="Upstate New York">Upstate New York</a> through the <a href="Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">industrial Midwest</a>—have often opposed trade agreements, while those from the South and the <a href="Western_United_States" title="Western United States">West</a> have generally supported them. The regional variation in trade-related interests implies that political parties may adopt opposing positions on trade policy when their electoral bases differ geographically. Each of the three trade policy eras—focused respectively on revenue, restriction, and reciprocity—occurred during periods of political dominance by a single party able to implement its preferred policies.<a href="#cite_note-ARE-124">[120]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Colonial_period">Colonial period</h4></div>

Trade policy was a subject of controversy even prior to the independence of the United States. The <a href="Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">thirteen North American colonies</a> were subject to the restrictive framework of the <a href="Navigation_Acts" title="Navigation Acts">Navigation Acts</a>, which directed most colonial trade through Britain. Approximately three-quarters of colonial exports were enumerated goods that had to pass through a British port before being reexported elsewhere, a policy that reduced the prices received by American planters.<a href="#cite_note-ARE-124">[120]</a>

Historians have debated whether British <a href="Mercantilist" class="mw-redirect" title="Mercantilist">mercantilist</a> policies harmed American colonial interests and fueled the <a href="American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>. Harper estimated that trade restrictions cost the colonies about 2.3% of their income in 1773, though this excluded benefits of empire, such as defense and lower shipping insurance.<a href="#cite_note-125">[121]</a> The economic burden of the Navigation Acts fell mostly on the southern colonies, especially tobacco planters in Maryland and Virginia, potentially reducing regional income by up to 2.5% and strengthening support for independence. American foreign trade declined sharply during the <a href="American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">Revolutionary War</a> and remained subdued into the 1780s. Trade revived during the 1790s but remained volatile due to ongoing military conflicts in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-ARE-124">[120]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Revenue_period_(1790–1860)">Revenue period (1790–1860)</h4></div>

Beginning in 1790, the newly established federal government adopted tariffs as its primary source of revenue. There was a consensus among the <a href="Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers</a> that tariffs were the most efficient way of raising <a href="Public_funds" class="mw-redirect" title="Public funds">public funds</a> as well as the most politically acceptable. Early <a href="Sales_tax" title="Sales tax">sales taxes</a> in the post-colonial period were highly controversial, difficult to enforce, and costly to administer. This was evident during events like the <a href="Whiskey_Rebellion" title="Whiskey Rebellion">Whiskey Rebellion</a>, where the enforcement of sales taxes led to significant resistance. Similarly, an <a href="Income_tax" title="Income tax">income tax</a> did not make sense for numerous reasons, particularly due to the complexities of tracking and collecting it. In contrast, <a href="Tariff" title="Tariff">tariffs</a> were a simpler solution. <a href="Import" title="Import">Imports</a> entered the United States primarily through a limited number of <a href="Port" title="Port">ports</a>, such as <a href="Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>, <a href="New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>, <a href="Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>, <a href="Baltimore" title="Baltimore">Baltimore</a>, and <a href="Charleston%2C_South_Carolina" title="Charleston, South Carolina">Charleston, South Carolina</a>. This concentration of imports made it easier to impose taxes directly at these points, streamlining the process of collection. Furthermore, tariffs were less visible to the general public because they were built into the price of goods, reducing political resistance. The system allowed for efficient revenue generation without the immediate visibility or perceived burden of other tax forms, contributing to its political acceptability among the Founders.<a href="#cite_note-EconFocus-126">[122]</a>

President <a href="Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> initiated a notable policy experiment by enacting a complete embargo on maritime commerce, with Congressional support, beginning in December 1807. The stated objective of the embargo was to protect American vessels and sailors from becoming entangled in the Anglo-French naval conflict (the <a href="Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>). By mid-1808, the United States had reached near-<a href="Autarky" title="Autarky">autarkic</a> conditions, representing one of the most extreme peacetime interruptions of international trade in its history. The embargo, which remained in effect from December 1807 to March 1809, imposed significant economic costs.<a href="#cite_note-ARE-124">[120]</a> Irwin (2005) estimates that the static welfare loss associated with the embargo was approximately 5% of GDP.<a href="#cite_note-127">[123]</a>

From 1837 to 1860, spanning the <a href="Second_Party_System" title="Second Party System">Second Party System</a> and ending with the Civil War, the Democratic Party held political dominance in the United States. The Democrats drew support primarily from the export-oriented South and promoted the slogan “a tariff for revenue only” to express their opposition to protective tariffs. As a result, the average tariff declined from early 1830s levels to under 20% by 1860. During this period, there were 12 sessions of Congress: 7 under unified government (6 led by Democrats, 1 by Whigs) and 5 under divided control. This meant that over the 34-year span, the pro-tariff <a href="Whig_Party_(United_States)" title="Whig Party (United States)">Whig Party</a>, based in the North, held power for only two years. They succeeded in raising tariffs in 1842, but this was reversed in 1846 after Democrats returned to power. Throughout the 10 years of divided government, tariff policy remained unchanged.<a href="#cite_note-ARE-124">[120]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Civil_War_(1861–1865)">Civil War (1861–1865)</h4></div>

Some non-academic commentators have argued that trade restrictions were a major factor in the South’s decision to secede during the <a href="American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a>, although this view is not widely supported among academic historians. After the 1828 Tariff of Abominations, South Carolina threatened secession, but the crisis was resolved through the <a href="Compromise_of_1833" class="mw-redirect" title="Compromise of 1833">Compromise of 1833</a>, which led to a steady decline in tariffs. Further reductions followed in 1846 and 1857, bringing the average tariff below 20% on the eve of the war—one of the lowest levels in the antebellum period. Irwin notes that Southern Democrats had substantial influence over trade policy until the Civil War. He rejects the <a href="Historical_revisionism" title="Historical revisionism">revisionist</a> claim—often associated with the <a href="Lost_Cause_of_the_Confederacy" title="Lost Cause of the Confederacy">Lost Cause</a> narrative—that the <a href="Morrill_Tariff" title="Morrill Tariff">Morrill Tariff</a> triggered the conflict. Instead, Irwin argues that the Morrill Tariff only passed because Southern states had already seceded and their representatives were no longer in Congress to oppose it. It was signed by President <a href="James_Buchanan" title="James Buchanan">James Buchanan</a>, a Democrat, before Lincoln took office. In short, Irwin finds no evidence that tariffs were a major cause of the Civil War.<a href="#cite_note-EconFocus-126">[122]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Restriction_period_(1866–1928)">Restriction period (1866–1928)</h4></div>

The Civil War shifted political power from the South to the North, benefiting the Republican Party, which favored protective tariffs. As a result, trade policy focused more on restriction than revenue, and average tariffs increased. From 1861 to 1932, the Republicans dominated American politics and drew their political support from the North, where manufacturing interests were concentrated. Republicans supported high tariffs to limit imports, leading to rates rising to 40–50% during the Civil War and remaining at that level for several decades. During this time, there were 35 sessions of Congress, including 21 under unified government (17 Republican, 4 Democratic) and 14 under divided control. Over the span of 72 years, Democrats succeeded in reducing tariffs only twice, in 1894 and 1913, but both efforts were swiftly reversed when Republicans regained power. Although trade policy was often contested, it remained relatively stable due to prolonged one-party dominance and institutional barriers to change.<a href="#cite_note-ARE-124">[120]</a>

According to Irwin, a common myth about U.S. trade policy is that high tariffs made the United States into a great industrial power in the late 19th century. As its share of global manufacturing powered from 23% in 1870 to 36% in 1913, the admittedly high tariffs of the time came with a cost, estimated at around 0.5% of GDP in the mid-1870s. In some industries, they might have sped up development by a few years. U.S. economic growth during its protectionist era was driven more by its abundant <a href="Natural_resource" title="Natural resource">natural resources</a> and openness to people and ideas, including large-scale <a href="Immigration" title="Immigration">immigration</a>, <a href="Foreign_capital" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign capital">foreign capital</a>, and imported technologies. While tariffs on manufactured goods were high, the country remained open in other respects, and much of the economic growth occurred in services such as <a href="Railroad" class="mw-redirect" title="Railroad">railroads</a> and <a href="Telecommunication" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunication">telecommunications</a> rather than in manufacturing, which had already expanded significantly before the Civil War when tariffs were lower.<a href="#cite_note-:5-128">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-IrwinAEI-129">[125]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Great_Depression_and_Smoot–Hawley_Tariff_(1929–1933)">Great Depression and Smoot–Hawley Tariff (1929–1933)</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Smoot%E2%80%93Hawley_Tariff_Act" title="Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act">Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act</a></div>

The Tariff Act of 1930, commonly known as the Smoot–Hawley Tariff, is considered one of the most controversial tariff laws ever enacted by the United States Congress. The act raised the average tariff on dutiable imports from approximately 40% to 47%, though price deflation during the <a href="Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> caused the effective rate to rise to nearly 60% by 1932. The Smoot–Hawley Tariff was implemented as the global economy was entering a severe downturn. The Great Depression of 1929–1933 represented an economic collapse for both the United States—where real GDP declined by about 25% and <a href="Unemployment" title="Unemployment">unemployment</a> exceeded 20%—and much of the world. As international trade contracted, trade barriers multiplied, unemployment increased, and industrial output declined worldwide, leading many to attribute part of the global economic crisis to the Smoot–Hawley Tariff. The extent to which this legislation contributed to the depth of the Great Depression has remained a subject of ongoing debate.<a href="#cite_note-ARE-124">[120]</a>

Irwin argues that while the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act was not the primary cause of the Great Depression, it contributed to its severity by provoking international retaliation and reducing global trade. What mitigated the impact of Smoot-Hawley was the small size of the trade sector at the time. Only a third of total imports to the United States in 1930 were subject to duties, and those dutiable imports represented only 1.4 percent of GDP. According to Irwin, there is no evidence that the legislation achieved its goals of net job creation or economic recovery. Even from a <a href="Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesian</a> perspective, the policy was counterproductive, as the decline in exports exceeded the reduction in imports. While falling foreign incomes were a key factor in the collapse of U.S. exports, the tariff also limited foreign access to <a href="U.S._dollar" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. dollar">U.S. dollars</a>, appreciating the currency and making American goods less competitive abroad. Irwin emphasizes that one of the most damaging consequences of the Act was the deterioration of the United States' trade relations with key partners. Enacted at a time when the <a href="League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> was seeking to implement a global "tariff truce", the Smoot-Hawley Tariff was widely perceived as a unilateral and hostile move, undermining <a href="International_cooperation" class="mw-redirect" title="International cooperation">international cooperation</a>. In his assessment, the most significant long-term impact was that the resentment it generated encouraged other countries to form discriminatory <a href="Trading_bloc" class="mw-redirect" title="Trading bloc">trading blocs</a>. These preferential arrangements, diverted trade away from the United States and hindered the global economic recovery.<a href="#cite_note-Peddling_Protectionism-130">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[127]</a>

A more cautious view is represented by the New Keynesian economist <a href="Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Paul Krugman</a>, who argues that tariffs were not the primary cause of the Great Depression but rather a response to it, and that protectionism constitutes only a limited source of allocative inefficiency.<a href="#cite_note-132">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[129]</a> Other economists have contended that the record tariffs of the 1920s and early 1930s exacerbated the <a href="Great_Depression_in_the_United_States" title="Great Depression in the United States">Great Depression in the U.S.</a>, in part because of retaliatory tariffs imposed by other countries on the United States.<a href="#cite_note-134">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[132]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reciprocity_period_(1934–2016)">Reciprocity period (1934–2016)</h4></div>

The Great Depression led to a political realignment following the Democratic victory in the 1932 election. This election ended decades of Republican dominance and initiated a period of Democratic control over the federal government that lasted from 1933 to 1993. The realignment shifted influence toward the party that prioritized export-oriented interests in the South. Consequently, the focus of trade policy moved from protectionism to reciprocity, and average tariff levels declined significantly. During this period, there were 30 sessions of Congress, with 16 under unified government (15 Democratic, 1 Republican) and 14 under divided government. Over these 60 years, the overarching goal of promoting reciprocal trade agreements remained largely unchanged, including during the two-year span (1953–1955) when Republicans held unified control.<a href="#cite_note-ARE-124">[120]</a>

Following <a href="World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, and in contrast to earlier periods, the Republican Party began supporting <a href="Trade_liberalization" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade liberalization">trade liberalization</a>. From the early 1950s through the early 1990s, an unusual era of bipartisan consensus emerged, during which both parties generally aligned on trade policy. This occurred during the <a href="Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, when foreign policy concerns were prominent and partisan divisions were subdued (Bailey 2003).<a href="#cite_note-137">[133]</a>

After the 1993 vote on the <a href="North_American_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="North American Free Trade Agreement">North American Free Trade Agreement</a> (NAFTA), Democratic support for trade liberalization declined significantly. By that time, the two major parties had effectively reversed their positions on trade policy. This shift in party alignment primarily reflects changes in regional representation: the South transitioned from being a Democratic stronghold to a Republican one,<a href="#cite_note-138">[134]</a> while the Northeast became increasingly Democratic. As a result, regional views on trade policy remained largely consistent, but the parties came to represent different geographic constituencies.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Current_world_trends">Current world trends</h2></div>

Certain policies of First World governments have been criticized as protectionist, such as the <a href="Common_Agricultural_Policy" title="Common Agricultural Policy">Common Agricultural Policy</a><a href="#cite_note-140">[136]</a> in the European Union, longstanding <a href="Agricultural_subsidy#United_States" title="Agricultural subsidy">agricultural subsidies</a> and proposed "Buy American" provisions<a href="#cite_note-141">[137]</a> in economic recovery packages in the United States.

Heads of the <a href="G20" title="G20">G20</a> meeting in London on 2 April 2009 pledged "We will not repeat the historic mistakes of protectionism of previous eras". Adherence to this pledge is monitored by the Global Trade Alert,<a href="#cite_note-142">[138]</a> providing up-to-date information and informed commentary to help ensure that the G20 pledge is met by maintaining confidence in the world trading system, deterring <a href="Beggar-thy-neighbor" class="mw-redirect" title="Beggar-thy-neighbor">beggar-thy-neighbor</a> acts and preserving the contribution that exports could play in the future recovery of the world economy.

Although they were reiterating what they had already committed to in the 2008 <a href="Washington%2C_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington</a> G20 summit, 17 of these 20 countries were reported by the World Bank as having imposed trade restrictive measures since then. In its report, the World Bank says most of the world's major economies are resorting to protectionist measures as the global economic slowdown begins to bite. Economists who have examined the impact of new trade-restrictive measures using detailed bilaterally monthly trade statistics estimated that new measures taken through late 2009 were distorting global merchandise trade by 0.25% to 0.5% (about $50 billion a year).<a href="#cite_note-143">[139]</a>

Since then, however, President <a href="Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> announced in January 2017 the U.S. was abandoning the TPP (<a href="Trans-Pacific_Partnership" title="Trans-Pacific Partnership">Trans-Pacific Partnership</a>) deal, saying, "We're going to stop the ridiculous trade deals that have taken everybody out of our country and taken companies out of our country, and it's going to be reversed."<a href="#cite_note-144">[140]</a> President <a href="Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Joe Biden</a> largely continued Trump's protectionist policies, and did not negotiate any <a href="Free_trade_agreements_of_the_United_States" title="Free trade agreements of the United States">new free trade agreements</a> during his presidency.<a href="#cite_note-145">[141]</a>

The 2010s and early 2020s have seen an increased use of protectionist economic policies across both developed countries and developing countries worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-146">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[143]</a>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 16em;">

<ul><li><a href="American_System_(economic_plan)" title="American System (economic plan)">American System (economic plan)</a></li>

<li><a href="Autarky" title="Autarky">Autarky</a></li>

<li><a href="Brexit" title="Brexit">Brexit</a></li>

<li><a href="Currency_war" title="Currency war">Currency war</a></li>

<li><a href="Developmentalism" title="Developmentalism">Developmentalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_Millennium_Copyright_Act" title="Digital Millennium Copyright Act">Digital Millennium Copyright Act</a></li>

<li><a href="Economic_nationalism" title="Economic nationalism">Economic nationalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Free_trade_debate" class="mw-redirect" title="Free trade debate">Free trade debate</a></li>

<li><a href="Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a></li>

<li><a href="Henry_C._Carey" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry C. Carey">Henry C. Carey</a></li>

<li><a href="Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></li>

<li><a href="Imperial_Preference" title="Imperial Preference">Imperial Preference</a></li>

<li><a href="International_trade" title="International trade">International trade</a></li>

<li><a href="Market-preserving_federalism" title="Market-preserving federalism">Market-preserving federalism</a></li>

<li><a href="National_Policy" title="National Policy">National Policy</a></li>

<li><a href="Not_invented_here" title="Not invented here">Not invented here</a></li>

<li><a href="Project_Labor_Agreement" title="Project Labor Agreement">Project Labor Agreement</a></li>

<li><a href="Protected_Geographical_Status" class="mw-redirect" title="Protected Geographical Status">Protected Geographical Status</a></li>

<li><a href="Protection_or_Free_Trade" title="Protection or Free Trade">Protection or Free Trade</a></li>

<li><a href="Protectionism_in_the_United_States" title="Protectionism in the United States">Protectionism in the United States</a></li>

<li><a href="Protective_tariff" class="mw-redirect" title="Protective tariff">Protective tariff</a></li>

<li><a href="Rent_seeking" class="mw-redirect" title="Rent seeking">Rent seeking</a></li>

<li><a href="Resistive_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Resistive economy">Resistive economy</a></li>

<li><a href="Smoot-Hawley_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Smoot-Hawley Act">Smoot-Hawley Act</a></li>

<li><a href="Tariff_Reform_League" title="Tariff Reform League">Tariff Reform League</a></li>

<li><a href="1923_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1923 United Kingdom general election">1923 United Kingdom general election</a></li>

<li><a href="Voluntary_export_restraint" title="Voluntary export restraint">Voluntary export restraint</a></li>

<li><a href="Washington_Consensus" title="Washington Consensus">Washington Consensus</a></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li>Feenstra, Robert C. 1992. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jep.6.3.159">How Costly Is Protectionism?</a>" Journal of Economic Perspectives, 6 (3): 159–178.</li>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("./mw/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("./mw/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("./mw/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("./mw/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><cite id="CITEREFMilner1988" class="citation book cs1">Milner, Helen V. (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/resistingprotect0000miln">Resisting protectionism: global industries and the politics of international trade</a>. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-691-01074-8</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHudson2010" class="citation book cs1">Hudson, Michael (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/10074353-america-s-protectionist-takeoff-1815-1914">America's Protectionist Takeoff, 1815–1914: The Neglected American School of Political Economy</a>. ISLET. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-9808466-8-4</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div class="reflist">

<li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFPiketty2022" class="citation book cs1">Piketty, Thomas (19 April 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Brief-History-Equality-Thomas-Piketty-ebook/dp/B09LMS2TTB/ref=sr_1_1?crid=DX899W7Q9YAC&keywords=a+brief+history+of+equality&qid=1704505570&sprefix=a+brief+history+of+equali%2Caps%2C123&sr=8-1">A Brief History of Equality</a>. Belknap Press. Retrieved 5 January 2024.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMurschetz2013" class="citation book cs1">Murschetz, Paul (2013). State Aid for Newspapers: Theories, Cases, Actions. <a href="Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer Science+Business Media</a>. p. 64. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-642-35690-2</bdi>. <q>Parties of the left in government adopt protectionist policies for ideological reasons and because they wish to save worker jobs. Conversely, right-wing parties are predisposed toward free trade policies.</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFPeláez2008" class="citation book cs1">Peláez, Carlos (2008). Globalization and the State: Volume II: Trade Agreements, Inequality, the Environment, Financial Globalization, International Law and Vulnerabilities. <a href="United_States" title="United States">United States</a>: <a href="Palgrave_MacMillan" class="mw-redirect" title="Palgrave MacMillan">Palgrave MacMillan</a>. p. 68. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-230-20531-4</bdi>. <q>Left-wing parties tend to support more protectionist policies than right-wing parties.</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMansfield2012" class="citation book cs1">Mansfield, Edward (2012). Votes, Vetoes, and the Political Economy of International Trade Agreements. <a href="Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. p. 128. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-691-13530-4</bdi>. <q>Left-wing governments are considered more likely than others to intervene in the economy and to enact protectionist trade policies.</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFWarren2008" class="citation book cs1">Warren, Kenneth (2008). Encyclopedia of U.S. Campaigns, Elections, and Electoral Behavior: A–M, Volume 1. Sage. p. 680. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4129-5489-1</bdi>. <q>Yet, certain national interests, regional trading blocks, and left-wing anti-globalization forces still favor protectionist practices, making protectionism a continuing issue for both American political parties.</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2017/03/the-end-of-reaganism-214853/">"The End of Reaganism"</a>. POLITICO Magazine. Retrieved 24 March 2017.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFFairbrother2014" class="citation journal cs1">Fairbrother, Malcolm (1 March 2014). "Economists, Capitalists, and the Making of Globalization: North American Free Trade in Comparative-Historical Perspective". American Journal of Sociology. 119 (5): 1324–1379. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F675410">10.1086/675410</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-9602">0002-9602</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25097930">25097930</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:38027389">38027389</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-nytimes.com-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nytimes.com_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nytimes.com_10-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nytimes.com_10-2">c</a> <a href="N._Gregory_Mankiw" class="mw-redirect" title="N. Gregory Mankiw">Mankiw, N. Gregory</a> (24 April 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/26/upshot/economists-actually-agree-on-this-point-the-wisdom-of-free-trade.html?mcubz=0">"Economists Actually Agree on This: The Wisdom of Free Trade"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190514014101/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/26/upshot/economists-actually-agree-on-this-point-the-wisdom-of-free-trade.html?mcubz=0">Archived</a> 14 May 2019 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. The New York Times. Retrieved 10 August 2021. "Economists are famous for disagreeing with one another.... But economists reach near unanimity on some topics, including international trade."

</li>

<li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://piie.com/newsroom/short-videos/why-after-200-years-cant-economists-sell-free-trade">"Economic Consensus On Free Trade"</a>. PIIE. 25 May 2017. Retrieved 27 February 2018.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFPoole2004" class="citation journal cs1">Poole, William (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.20955%2Fr.86.1-6">"Free Trade: Why Are Economists and Noneconomists So Far Apart?"</a>. Review. 86 (5). <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.20955%2Fr.86.1-6">10.20955/r.86.1-6</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-See_P_1994-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-See_P_1994_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-See_P_1994_13-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-See_P_1994_13-2">c</a> See P. Krugman, "The Narrow and Broad Arguments for Free Trade", American Economic Review, Papers and Proceedings, 83(3), 1993 ; and P. Krugman, Peddling Prosperity: Economic Sense and Nonsense in the Age of Diminished Expectations, New York, W.W. Norton & Company, 1994.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-IGMFreeTrade-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IGMFreeTrade_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-IGMFreeTrade_14-1">b</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.igmchicago.org/surveys/free-trade">"Free Trade"</a>. IGM Forum. 13 March 2012. Retrieved 24 June 2017.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Import_Duties-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Import_Duties_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Import_Duties_15-1">b</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.igmchicago.org/surveys/import-duties">"Import Duties"</a>. IGM Forum. 4 October 2016. Retrieved 24 June 2017.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.igmchicago.org/surveys/trade-within-europe">"Trade Within Europe"</a>. IGM Forum. Retrieved 24 June 2017.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <a href="William_Poole_(economist)" title="William Poole (economist)">Poole, William</a> (September/October 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.593.9688&rep=rep1&type=pdf">"Free Trade: Why Are Economists and Noneconomists So Far Apart"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171107004118/http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.593.9688&rep=rep1&type=pdf">Archived</a> 7 November 2017 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Review. 86 (5): pp. 1–6. "... most observers agree that '[t]he consensus among mainstream economists on the desirability of free trade remains almost universal.'" Quote at p. 1.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFIrwin2017" class="citation book cs1">Irwin, Douglas (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oz_BDgAAQBAJ">Peddling Protectionism: Smoot-Hawley and the Great Depression</a>. Princeton University Press. pp. vii–xviii. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4008-8842-9</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://krugman.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/03/04/the-mitt-hawley-fallacy/">"The Mitt-Hawley Fallacy"</a>. 4 March 2016.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.nytimes.com/krugman.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/07/10/hayek-trade-restrictions-and-the-great-depression/">"Hayek, Trade Restrictions, and the Great Depression"</a>. 10 July 2010.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFPoole2004" class="citation journal cs1">Poole, William (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.20955%2Fr.86.1-6">"Free Trade: Why Are Economists and Noneconomists So Far Apart?"</a>. Review. 86 (5). <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.20955%2Fr.86.1-6">10.20955/r.86.1-6</a>. <q>One set of reservations concerns distributional effects of trade. Workers are not seen as benefiting from trade. Strong evidence exists indicating a perception that the benefits of trade flow to businesses and the wealthy, rather than to workers, and to those abroad rather than to those in the United States.</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Xiong_2012b_155-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Xiong_2012b_155_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Xiong_2012b_155_22-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFXiong2012b" class="citation journal cs1">Xiong, Ping (2012b). "Patents in TRIPS-Plus Provisions and the Approaches to Interpretation of Free Trade Agreements and TRIPS: Do They Affect Public Health?". Journal of World Trade. 46 (1): 155. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.54648%2FTRAD2012006">10.54648/TRAD2012006</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRosenfeld2016" class="citation news cs1">Rosenfeld, Everett (11 March 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cnbc.com/2016/03/11/heres-why-everyone-is-arguing-about-free-trade.html">"Here's why everyone is arguing about free trade"</a>. CNBC. Retrieved 10 August 2021.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Essentials-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Essentials_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Essentials_24-1">b</a> Paul Krugman, Robin Wells & Martha L. Olney, Essentials of Economics (Worth Publishers, 2007), pp. 342–345.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFWongTatlow2013" class="citation web cs1">Wong, Edward; Tatlow, Didi Kirsten (5 June 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/06/world/asia/wide-china-push-is-seen-to-obtain-industry-secrets.html">"China Seen in Push to Gain Technology Insights"</a>. <a href="The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. Retrieved 16 October 2017.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMarkoffRosenberg2017" class="citation web cs1">Markoff, John; Rosenberg, Matthew (3 February 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/03/technology/artificial-intelligence-china-united-states.html">"China's Intelligent Weaponry Gets Smarter"</a>. <a href="The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. Retrieved 16 October 2017.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://observer.com/2016/04/the-unpleasant-truth-about-chinese-espionage/">"The Unpleasant Truth About Chinese Espionage"</a>. Observer.com. 22 April 2016. Retrieved 16 October 2017.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> Ippei Yamazawa, "Restructuring the Japanese Economy: Policies and Performance" in Global Protectionism (eds. Robert C. Hine, Anthony P. O'Brien, David Greenaway & Robert J. Thornton: St. Martin's Press, 1991), pp. 55–56.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> Crispin Weymouth, "Is 'Protectionism' a Useful Concept for Company Law and Foreign Investment Policy? An EU Perspective" in Company Law and Economic Protectionism: New Challenges to European Integration (eds. Ulf Bernitz & Wolf-Georg Ringe: Oxford University Press, 2010), pp. 44–76.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFPeter_DrahosJohn_Braithwaite2002" class="citation book cs1">Peter Drahos; John Braithwaite (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Pkl7HNzhXgoC&q=%22States+realized+that%22&pg=PA36">Information Feudalism: Who Owns the Knowledge Economy?</a>. London: Earthscan. p. 36. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-85383-917-7</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.globalpolicy.org/globaliz/econ/2003/0714rta.htm">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061017061845/http://www.globalpolicy.org/globaliz/econ/2003/0714rta.htm">Archived</a> 17 October 2006 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <a href="William_Poole_(economist)" title="William Poole (economist)">William Poole</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/6958854.pdf">Free Trade: Why Are Economists and Noneconomists So Far Apart</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171207055442/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/6958854.pdf">Archived</a> 7 December 2017 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Review, September/October 2004, 86(5), pp. 1: "most observers agree that '[t]he consensus among mainstream economists on the desirability of free trade remains almost universal.'"

</li>

<li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.igmchicago.org/surveys/trade-within-europe">"Trade Within Europe | IGM Forum"</a>. Igmchicago.org. Retrieved 24 June 2017.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:6-34">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_34-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_34-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFPanagariya2019" class="citation journal cs1">Panagariya, Arvind (18 July 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=3501729">"Debunking Protectionist Myths: Free Trade, the Developing World, and Prosperity"</a>. Cato Institute Economic Development Bulletin (31). <a href="SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3501729">3501729</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHickel2018" class="citation book cs1">Hickel, Jason (2018). The Divide: A Brief Guide to Global Inequality and its Solutions. <a href="Windmill_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Windmill Books">Windmill Books</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1786090034</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FreeToChoose-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FreeToChoose_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FreeToChoose_36-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFFriedmanRose_D._FriedmanJames_Adams1980" class="citation book cs1">Friedman, Milton; Rose D. Friedman; James Adams (1980). <a href="Free_to_Choose" title="Free to Choose">Free to Choose</a>: A Personal Statement. Vol. 249. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Krugman-37"><a href="#cite_ref-Krugman_37-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFKrugman1987" class="citation journal cs1">Krugman, Paul R. (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1257%2Fjep.1.2.131">"Is Free Trade Passe?"</a>. The Journal of Economic Perspectives. 1 (2): 131–44. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1257%2Fjep.1.2.131">10.1257/jep.1.2.131</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1942985">1942985</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> Krugman, Paul (24 January 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.slate.com/id/1916/">The Accidental Theorist</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110920030311/http://www.slate.com/id/1916/">Archived</a> 20 September 2011 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Slate.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMagee1976" class="citation book cs1">Magee, Stephen P. (1976). International Trade and Distortions In Factor Markets. New York: Marcel-Dekker.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFFajgelbaumKhandelwal2016" class="citation journal cs1">Fajgelbaum, Pablo D.; Khandelwal, Amit K. (1 August 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nber.org/papers/w20331.pdf">"Measuring the Unequal Gains from Trade"</a> (PDF). The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 131 (3): 1113–80. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fqje%2Fqjw013">10.1093/qje/qjw013</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0033-5533">0033-5533</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:9094432">9094432</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFAmitiDaiFeenstraRomalis2017" class="citation web cs1">Amiti, Mary; Dai, Mi; Feenstra, Robert; Romalis, John (28 June 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://voxeu.org/article/china-s-wto-entry-benefits-us-consumers">"China's WTO entry benefits US consumers"</a>. VoxEU.org. Retrieved 28 June 2017.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRodrik" class="citation web cs1">Rodrik, Dani. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://piie.com/publications/chapters_preview/57/1iie2415.pdf">"Has Globalization Gone Too Far?"</a> (PDF). Institute for International Economics.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFFurceriHannanOstryRose2019" class="citation book cs1">Furceri, Davide; Hannan, Swarnali A.; Ostry, Jonathon D.; Rose, Andrew K. (2019). Macroeconomic Consequences of Tariffs. International Monetary Fund. p. 4. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781484390061</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFFrankelRomer1999" class="citation journal cs1">Frankel, Jeffrey A; Romer, David (June 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1257%2Faer.89.3.379">"Does Trade Cause Growth?"</a>. American Economic Review. 89 (3): 379–99. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1257%2Faer.89.3.379">10.1257/aer.89.3.379</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-8282">0002-8282</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFPanagariya2019" class="citation book cs1">Panagariya, Arvind (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/free-trade-and-prosperity-9780190914493?cc=us&lang=en&">Free Trade and Prosperity: How Openness Helps the Developing Countries Grow Richer and Combat Poverty</a>. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-19-091449-3</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:3-46">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_46-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_46-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_46-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_46-3">d</a> <cite id="CITEREFFindlayO'Rourke2009" class="citation book cs1">Findlay, Ronald; O'Rourke, Kevin H. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press.princeton.edu/titles/8493.html">Power and Plenty</a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-691-14327-9</bdi>. Retrieved 16 October 2017.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:2-47">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_47-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_47-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFIrwin2001" class="citation journal cs1">Irwin, Douglas A. (1 January 2001). "Tariffs and Growth in Late Nineteenth-Century America". World Economy. 24 (1): 15–30. <a href="CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.200.5492">10.1.1.200.5492</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1467-9701.00341">10.1111/1467-9701.00341</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1467-9701">1467-9701</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153647738">153647738</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFVarian2022" class="citation journal cs1">Varian, Brian D. (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/aehr.12233">"Revisiting the tariff-growth correlation: The Australasian colonies, 1866–1900"</a>. Australian Economic History Review. 62 (1): 47–65. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Faehr.12233">10.1111/aehr.12233</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0004-8992">0004-8992</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFH._O'Rourke2000" class="citation journal cs1">H. O'Rourke, Kevin (1 November 2000). "British trade policy in the 19th century: a review article". European Journal of Political Economy. 16 (4): 829–42. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0176-2680%2899%2900043-9">10.1016/S0176-2680(99)00043-9</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> Krugman, Paul (21 March 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.slate.com/id/1918/">In Praise of Cheap Labor</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110907073142/http://www.slate.com/id/1918">Archived</a> 7 September 2011 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Slate.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> Sicilia, David B. & Cruikshank, Jeffrey L. (2000). The Greenspan Effect, p. 131. New York: McGraw-Hill. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-07-134919-2</bdi>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bloomberg.com/view/articles/2016-12-22/the-case-for-protecting-infant-industries">"The Case for Protecting Infant Industries"</a>. Bloomberg.com. 22 December 2016. Retrieved 24 June 2017.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:4-53">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_53-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_53-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFBaldwin1969" class="citation journal cs1">Baldwin, Robert E. (1969). "The Case against Infant-Industry Tariff Protection". Journal of Political Economy. 77 (3): 295–305. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F259517">10.1086/259517</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1828905">1828905</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154784307">154784307</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFOBaran1982" class="citation journal cs1">O, Krueger, Anne; Baran, Tuncer (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://econpapers.repec.org/article/aeaaecrev/v_3a72_3ay_3a1982_3ai_3a5_3ap_3a1142-52.htm">"An Empirical Test of the Infant Industry Argument"</a>. American Economic Review. 72 (5).</cite><code class="cs1-code">{{cite journal}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

</li>

<li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFChoudhriHakura2000" class="citation journal cs1">Choudhri, Ehsan U.; Hakura, Dalia S. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://elibrary.imf.org/view/IMF001/03777-9781451843521/03777-9781451843521/03777-9781451843521.xml">"International Trade and Productivity Growth: Exploring the Sectoral Effects for Developing Countries"</a>. IMF Staff Papers. 47 (1): 30–53. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3867624">10.2307/3867624</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3867624">3867624</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBaldwinKrugman1986" class="citation journal cs1">Baldwin, Richard E.; Krugman, Paul (June 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3386%2Fw1936">"Market Access and International Competition: A Simulation Study of 16K Random Access Memories"</a>. NBER Working Paper No. 1936. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3386%2Fw1936">10.3386/w1936</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFLuzioGreenstein1995" class="citation journal cs1">Luzio, Eduardo; Greenstein, Shane (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ideals.illinois.edu/bitstream/2142/29917/2/measuringperform93180luzi.pdf">"Measuring the Performance of a Protected Infant Industry: The Case of Brazilian Microcomputers"</a> (PDF). The Review of Economics and Statistics. 77 (4): 622–633. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2109811">10.2307/2109811</a>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2142%2F29917">2142/29917</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2109811">2109811</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://piie.com/publications/policy-briefs/us-tire-tariffs-saving-few-jobs-high-cost">"US Tire Tariffs: Saving Few Jobs at High Cost"</a>. PIIE. 2 March 2016. Retrieved 24 June 2017.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> See TRIPS Art. 1(3).

</li>

<li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFGervais2012" class="citation book cs1">Gervais, Daniel (2012). The TRIPS Agreement: Negotiating History. London: Sweet & Maxwell. pp. Part I.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Trade,_Doha-62">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Trade,_Doha_62-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Trade,_Doha_62-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFNewfarmer2006" class="citation book cs1">Newfarmer, Richard (2006). Trade, Doha, and Development (1st ed.). The World Bank. p. 292.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFTimmermann,_CristianHenk_van_den_Belt2013" class="citation journal cs1">Timmermann, Cristian; Henk van den Belt (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.wur.nl/WebQuery/wurpubs/438139">"Intellectual property and global health: from corporate social responsibility to the access to knowledge movement"</a>. Liverpool Law Review. 34 (1): 47–73. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10991-013-9129-9">10.1007/s10991-013-9129-9</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145492036">145492036</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200623091949/https://library.wur.nl/WebQuery/wurpubs/438139">Archived</a> from the original on 23 June 2020. Retrieved 31 October 2020.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFNebehay2020" class="citation news cs1">Nebehay, Emma Farge, Stephanie (10 December 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-wto-idUSKBN28K2WL">"WTO delays decision on waiver on COVID-19 drug, vaccine rights"</a>. Reuters. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210228221930/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-wto-idUSKBN28K2WL">Archived</a> from the original on 28 February 2021. Retrieved 25 February 2021.</cite><code class="cs1-code">{{cite news}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

</li>

<li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wto.org/english/news_e/news20_e/trip_10dec20_e.htm">"Members to continue discussion on proposal for temporary IP waiver in response to COVID-19"</a>. World Trade Organisation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210227121050/https://www.wto.org/english/news_e/news20_e/trip_10dec20_e.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 27 February 2021. Retrieved 25 February 2021.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBakerLabonte2021" class="citation web cs1">Baker, Brook K.; Labonte, Ronald (9 January 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theconversation.com/dummys-guide-to-how-trade-rules-affect-access-to-covid-19-vaccines-152897">"Dummy's guide to how trade rules affect access to COVID-19 vaccines"</a>. The Conversation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210223131044/https://theconversation.com/dummys-guide-to-how-trade-rules-affect-access-to-covid-19-vaccines-152897">Archived</a> from the original on 23 February 2021. Retrieved 25 February 2021.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cato.org/free-trade-bulletin/unnecessary-proposal-wto-waiver-intellectual-property-rights-covid-19-vaccines">"An Unnecessary Proposal: A WTO Waiver of Intellectual Property Rights for COVID-19 Vaccines"</a>. Cato Institute. 16 December 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210225100812/https://www.cato.org/free-trade-bulletin/unnecessary-proposal-wto-waiver-intellectual-property-rights-covid-19-vaccines">Archived</a> from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 25 February 2021.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2021/02/g7-leaders-are-shooting-themselves-in-the-foot-by-failing-to-tackle-global-vaccine-access/">"G7 leaders are shooting themselves in the foot by failing to tackle global vaccine access"</a>. Amnesty International. 19 February 2021. Retrieved 25 April 2021.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFPietromarchi2021" class="citation web cs1">Pietromarchi, Virginia (1 March 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/3/1/can-a-waiver-on-ip-rights-solve-vaccine">"Patently unfair: Can waivers help solve COVID vaccine inequality?"</a>. Al Jazeera. Retrieved 26 April 2021.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://covid19response.org/trips-waiver/">"TRIPS Waiver | Covid-19 Response"</a>. covid19response.org.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.devex.com/news/wto-finally-agrees-on-a-trips-deal-but-not-everyone-is-happy-103476">"WTO finally agrees on a TRIPS deal. But not everyone is happy"</a>. Devex. 17 June 2022.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> DiLorenzo, T. J., Frederic Bastiat (1801–1850): Between the French and Marginalist Revolutions. accessed at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mises.org/page/1447/Biography-of-Frederic-Bastiat-18011850">[Ludwig Von Mises Institute] 2012-04-13</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140913235907/https://mises.org/page/1447/Biography-of-Frederic-Bastiat-18011850">Archived</a> 13 September 2014 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFKeeley1996" class="citation book cs1">Keeley, Lawrence (6 February 1996). War Before Civilization: The Myth of the Peaceful Savage Reprint Edition. Oxford University Press, USA. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0195119126</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFCanada" class="citation web cs1">Canada, Asia Pacific Foundation of. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://asiapacificcurriculum.ca/learning-module/opium-wars-china">"The Opium Wars in China"</a>. Asia Pacific Curriculum.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFYardley2009" class="citation news cs1"><a href="Jonathan_Yardley" title="Jonathan Yardley">Yardley, Jonathan</a> (16 March 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/03/15/AR2009031502277_pf.html">"Jonathan Yardley Reviews 'The Proud Tower,' by Barbara Tuchman"</a>. <a href="The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> The National System of Political Economy, by Friedrich List, 1841, translated by Sampson S. Lloyd M.P., 1885 edition, Fourth Book, "The Politics", Chapter 33.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:0-78">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_78-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_78-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFCM2013" class="citation journal cs1">C, Feenstra, Robert; M, Taylor, Alan (23 December 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nber.org/books/feen11-1">"Globalization in an Age of Crisis: Multilateral Economic Cooperation in the Twenty-First Century"</a>. NBER. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7208%2Fchicago%2F9780226030890.001.0001">10.7208/chicago/9780226030890.001.0001</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-226-03075-3</bdi>.</cite><code class="cs1-code">{{cite journal}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

</li>

<li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/15/opinion/15krugman.html?src=me">https://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/15/opinion/15krugman.html?src=me</a> Taking On China

</li>

<li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://economistsview.typepad.com/economistsview/2010/09/paul-krugman-taking-on-china.html">"Economist's View: Paul Krugman: Taking on China"</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://krugman.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/12/31/macroeconomic-effects-of-chinese-mercantilism/">"Macroeconomic effects of Chinese mercantilism"</a>. 31 December 2009.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/01/opinion/01krugman.html?mtrref=blogs.worldbank.org&gwh=B3231576E9FD9BDAEC5EBD56EFDCC866&gwt=pay">"Opinion | Chinese New Year (Published 2010)"</a>. <a href="The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. January 2010.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://economistsview.typepad.com/economistsview/2009/12/paul-krugman-chinese-new-year.html">"Economist's View: Paul Krugman: Chinese New Year"</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/25/opinion/25krugman.html?mtrref=www.google.com&gwh=BC216C8BA8F1415F915F9DE7DFDFCCD14CA846&gwt=pay">"Opinion | the Renminbi Runaround (Published 2010)"</a>. <a href="The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. 25 June 2010.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://economistsview.typepad.com/economistsview/2010/06/paul-krugman-the-renminbi-runaround.html">"Economist's View: Paul Krugman: The Renminbi Runaround"</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/13/opinion/13krugman.html?mtrref=www.google.com&gwh=24A582538B90C0FDEA00892926110017&gwt=pay">"Opinion | China, Japan, America (Published 2010)"</a>. <a href="The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. 13 September 2010.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://economistsview.typepad.com/economistsview/2010/09/paul-krugman-china-japan-america.html">"Economist's View: Paul Krugman: China, Japan, America"</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.imf.org/external/np/pp/eng/2015/062615a.pdf">"2015 External Sector Report—Individual Economy Assessments"</a> (PDF). International Monetary Fund: 13. 26 June 2015. Retrieved 11 April 2025.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFCalomiris_W." class="citation web cs1">Calomiris W., Charles. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/charlescalomiris/2015/08/25/trump-gets-facts-wrong-on-china-currency-depreciation-manipulation/">"Trump Gets His Facts Wrong On China"</a>. Forbes. Retrieved 12 April 2025.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:1-90">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_90-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_90-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_90-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_90-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_90-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_90-5">f</a> <cite id="CITEREFFindlayO'Rourke2003" class="citation journal cs1">Findlay, Ronald; O'Rourke, Kevin H. (1 January 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nber.org/chapters/c9585">"Commodity Market Integration, 1500–2000"</a>. NBER: 13–64.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHarley2004" class="citation book cs1">Harley, C. Knick (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-economic-history-of-modern-britain/trade-discovery-mercantilism-and-technology/A0D309440D728FC14CC299FACB7A5876">"7 – Trade: discovery, mercantilism and technology"</a>. The Cambridge Economic History of Modern Britain. Cambridge University. pp. 175–203. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCHOL9780521820363.008">10.1017/CHOL9780521820363.008</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-139-05385-3</bdi>. Retrieved 27 June 2017.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFWilliamson1990" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Jeffrey_G._Williamson" title="Jeffrey G. Williamson">Williamson, Jeffrey G</a> (1 April 1990). "The impact of the Corn Laws just prior to repeal". Explorations in Economic History. 27 (2): 123–156. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0014-4983%2890%2990007-L">10.1016/0014-4983(90)90007-L</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFDaudinO’RourkeEscosura2008" class="citation journal cs1">Daudin, Guillaume; O’Rourke, Kevin H.; Escosura, Leandro Prados de la (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ideas.repec.org/p/fce/doctra/0824.html">"Trade and Empire, 1700–1870"</a>. Documents de Travail de l'Ofce.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Paradoxes-94"><a href="#cite_ref-Paradoxes_94-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFPaul_Bairoch1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Paul_Bairoch" title="Paul Bairoch">Paul Bairoch</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171012060209/https://www.scribd.com/document/193124153/Economics-and-World-History-Myths-and-Paradoxes-Paul-Bairoch">Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes</a>. University of Chicago Press. pp. 31–32. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scribd.com/document/193124153/Economics-and-World-History-Myths-and-Paradoxes-Paul-Bairoch">the original</a> on 12 October 2017. Retrieved 16 August 2017.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> Tsang, J., "Towards a Brighter Future in Trade and World Development", Hong Kong Industrialist, 2005/12, p. 28

</li>

<li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBaten,_Jörg2016" class="citation book cs1">Baten, Jörg (2016). A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present. Cambridge University Press. p. 13. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-107-50718-0</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> Darwin, 2012 pp. 21–22

</li>

<li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> Darwin, 2012 p. 166

</li>

<li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMax_Savelle1948" class="citation book cs1">Max Savelle (1948). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hIgl_HNozQsC&pg=PA204">Seeds of Liberty: The Genesis of the American Mind</a>. Kessinger. p. 204ff. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4191-0707-8</bdi>.</cite> <code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)

</li>

<li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> Harold Cox, ed., British industries under free trade (1903) pp, 17–18.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFLynn1999" class="citation journal cs1">Lynn, Martin (1999). Porter, Andrew (ed.). "British Policy, Trade, and Informal Empire in the Mid-19th Century". The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume III: The Nineteenth Century. 3: 101–121. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780198205654.003.0006">10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198205654.003.0006</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFWilliamson1990" class="citation journal cs1">Williamson, Jeffrey G (1 April 1990). "The impact of the Corn Laws just prior to repeal". Explorations in Economic History. 27 (2): 123–156. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0014-4983%2890%2990007-L">10.1016/0014-4983(90)90007-L</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBairochBurke1989" class="citation cs2">Bairoch, Paul; Burke, Susan (15 June 1989), Mathias, Peter; Pollard, Sidney (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/CBO9781139054508A005/type/book_part">"European trade policy, 1815–1914"</a>, The Cambridge Economic History of Europe from the Decline of the Roman Empire (1 ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–160, <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fchol9780521225045.002">10.1017/chol9780521225045.002</a>, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-139-05450-8</bdi>, retrieved 6 November 2024</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFVarian2023" class="citation journal cs1">Varian, Brian D. (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ehr.13214">"British exports and foreign tariffs: Insights from the Board of Trade's foreign tariff compilation for 1902"</a>. The Economic History Review. 76 (3): 827–843. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fehr.13214">10.1111/ehr.13214</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0013-0117">0013-0117</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFCoppock1956" class="citation journal cs1">Coppock, D. J. (1956). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-9957.1956.tb00972.x">"The Climacteric of the 1890's: A Critical Note"</a>. The Manchester School. 24 (1): 1–31. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-9957.1956.tb00972.x">10.1111/j.1467-9957.1956.tb00972.x</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1463-6786">1463-6786</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFCraftsMills2020" class="citation journal cs1">Crafts, Nicholas; Mills, Terence C (1 November 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/ereh/article/24/4/736/5804838">"Sooner than you think: the Pre-1914 UK Productivity Slowdown was Victorian not Edwardian"</a>. European Review of Economic History. 24 (4): 736–748. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fereh%2Fhez022">10.1093/ereh/hez022</a>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10.1093%2Fereh%2Fhez022">10.1093/ereh/hez022</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1361-4916">1361-4916</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFAbel1945" class="citation book cs1">Abel, Deryck (1945). A History of British Tariffs, 1923-1942. London: Heath, Cranton Limited.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFVarian2019" class="citation journal cs1">Varian, Brian D. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/sjpe.12223">"The growth of manufacturing protection in 1920s Britain"</a>. Scottish Journal of Political Economy. 66 (5): 703–711. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fsjpe.12223">10.1111/sjpe.12223</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0036-9292">0036-9292</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFForeman-Peck1979" class="citation journal cs1">Foreman-Peck, J. S. (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/oep/article/2360834/TARIFF">"Tariff Protection and Economies of Scale: The British Motor Industry Before 1939"</a>. Oxford Economic Papers. 31 (2): 237–257. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordjournals.oep.a041444">10.1093/oxfordjournals.oep.a041444</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1464-3812">1464-3812</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFVarian2022" class="citation journal cs1">Varian, Brian D. (18 August 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00076791.2020.1753699">"Protection and the British rayon industry during the 1920s"</a>. Business History. 64 (6): 1131–1148. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00076791.2020.1753699">10.1080/00076791.2020.1753699</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0007-6791">0007-6791</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFAbel1945" class="citation book cs1">Abel, Deryck (1945). A History of British Tariffs, 1923-1942. London: Heath, Cranton Limited.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFLloydSolomou2020" class="citation journal cs1">Lloyd, Simon P.; Solomou, Solomos (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11698-019-00184-z">"The impact of the 1932 General Tariff: a difference-in-difference approach"</a>. Cliometrica. 14 (1): 41–60. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11698-019-00184-z">10.1007/s11698-019-00184-z</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1863-2505">1863-2505</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> P. J. Cain and A. G. Hopkins, British Imperialism: 1688–2000 (2nd ed. 2002) ch. 10

</li>

<li id="cite_note-jstor.org-114"><a href="#cite_ref-jstor.org_114-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMukherjee2010" class="citation journal cs1">Mukherjee, Aditya (2010). "Empire: How Colonial India Made Modern Britain". Economic and Political Weekly. 45 (50): 73–82. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25764217">25764217</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHabib1995" class="citation book cs1">Habib, Irfan (1995). "Colonisation of the Indian Economy". Essays in Indian History. New Delhi: Tulika Press. pp. 304–46.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFGallas2018" class="citation news cs1">Gallas, Daniel (August 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/business-44902104">"The Country Built on Trade Barriers"</a>. BBC News. Retrieved 10 November 2021.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFCoatsworthWilliamson2002" class="citation journal cs1">Coatsworth, John; Williamson, Jeffrey (June 2002). "THE ROOTS OF LATIN AMERICAN PROTECTIONISM: LOOKING BEFORE THE GREAT DEPRESSION". NBER Working Paper Series.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mercosur.int/en/about-mercosur/mercosur-in-brief/">"Mercosur in Brief"</a>. mercosur.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFPinillaRayes2018" class="citation journal cs1">Pinilla, Vicente; Rayes, Agustina (27 September 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://zaguan.unizar.es/record/84206">"How Argentina became a super-exporter of agricultural and food products during the First Globalisation (1880–1929)"</a>. <a href="Cliometrica" title="Cliometrica">Cliometrica</a>. 13 (3): 443–469. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11698-018-0178-0">10.1007/s11698-018-0178-0</a>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11336%2F177360">11336/177360</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1863-2505">1863-2505</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:158598822">158598822</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-cht-120"><a href="#cite_ref-cht_120-0">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110426054555/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/commandingheights/lo/countries/ar/ar_trade.html">"Argentina Trade Policy"</a>. Commanding Heights: The Battle For The World Economy. PBS. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/commandingheights/lo/countries/ar/ar_trade.html">the original</a> on 26 April 2011.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFAntonio_Cafiero2008" class="citation news cs1">Antonio Cafiero (7 May 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120211073528/http://www.pagina12.com.ar/diario/elpais/subnotas/103697-32644-2008-05-07.html">"Intimidaciones, boicots y calidad institucional"</a>. Página/12. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pagina12.com.ar/diario/elpais/subnotas/103697-32644-2008-05-07.html">the original</a> on 11 February 2012.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFArnaut" class="citation web cs1">Arnaut, Javier. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120426051927/http://www.fcs.edu.uy/archivos/Arnaut,%20Understanding%20the%20Latin%20American%20Gap%20during%20the%20era%20of%20Import%20Substitution.pdf">"Understanding the Latin American Gap during the era of Import Substitution: Institutions, Productivity, and Distance to the Technology Frontier in Brazil, Argentina and Mexico's Manufacturing Industries, 1935–1975"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fcs.edu.uy/archivos/Arnaut,%20Understanding%20the%20Latin%20American%20Gap%20during%20the%20era%20of%20Import%20Substitution.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 26 April 2012.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFJorge_Avila2006" class="citation web cs1">Jorge Avila (25 May 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303175246/http://www.jorgeavilaopina.com/?p=61">"Ingreso per cápita relativo 1875–2006"</a>. Jorge Avila Opina. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jorgeavilaopina.com/?p=61">the original</a> on 3 March 2016.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-ARE-124">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ARE_124-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ARE_124-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ARE_124-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ARE_124-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ARE_124-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ARE_124-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ARE_124-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ARE_124-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ARE_124-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ARE_124-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ARE_124-10">k</a> <cite id="CITEREFIrwin2020" class="citation journal cs1">Irwin, Douglas A. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ccd.ucsd.edu/_files/papers/paper_irwin_annurev-economics.pdf">"Trade policy in American economic history"</a> (PDF). <a href="Annual_Review_of_Economics" title="Annual Review of Economics">Annual Review of Economics</a>. 12 (1): 23–44.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHarper1939" class="citation book cs1">Harper, Lawrence A. (1939). The English Navigation Laws. New York: Columbia University Press.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-EconFocus-126">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EconFocus_126-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EconFocus_126-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFAaron_Steelman2017" class="citation web cs1">Aaron Steelman (August 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.richmondfed.org/publications/research/econ_focus/2017/q3/interview">"Interview: Douglas Irwin"</a>. Econ Focus. Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond. Retrieved 4 July 2025.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFIrwin2005" class="citation journal cs1">Irwin, Douglas A. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-9396.2005.00527.x">"The welfare costs of autarky: evidence from the Jeffersonian embargo, 1807–1809"</a>. Review of International Economics. 13: 631–645. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-9396.2005.00527.x">10.1111/j.1467-9396.2005.00527.x</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:5-128"><a href="#cite_ref-:5_128-0">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21731616-douglas-irwin-agrees-trade-policy-important-all-manner-powers-are-wrongly?fsrc=scn/tw/te/bl/ed/ahistorianonthemythsofamericantradescapegoatingtrade">"A historian on the myths of American trade"</a>. The Economist. Retrieved 26 November 2017.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-IrwinAEI-129"><a href="#cite_ref-IrwinAEI_129-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFIrwin2018" class="citation web cs1">Irwin, Douglas A. (August 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aei.org/economics/did-tariffs-make-america-great-a-long-read-qa-with-trade-historian-douglas-a-irwin/">"Did Tariffs Make America Great? A Long-Read Q&A with Trade Historian Douglas A. Irwin"</a>. American Enterprise Institute. Retrieved 4 July 2025.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Peddling_Protectionism-130"><a href="#cite_ref-Peddling_Protectionism_130-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFDaniel_Griswold2011" class="citation journal cs1">Daniel Griswold (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/905851675">"Peddling Protectionism: Smoot-Hawley and the Great Depression"</a>. Cato Journal. 31 (3): 661–665. <a href="ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/905851675">905851675</a>. Retrieved 3 April 2025.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFIrwin2011" class="citation book cs1">Irwin, Douglas A. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oz_BDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA116">Peddling Protectionism: Smoot-Hawley and the Great Depression</a>. Princeton University Press. p. 116. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781400888429</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://krugman.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/03/04/the-mitt-hawley-fallacy/">"The Mitt-Hawley Fallacy"</a>. 4 March 2016.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.nytimes.com/krugman.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/07/10/hayek-trade-restrictions-and-the-great-depression/">"Hayek, Trade Restrictions, and the Great Depression"</a>. 10 July 2010.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFGuzik2024" class="citation web cs1">Guzik, Erik (31 October 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theconversation.com/tariffs-are-back-in-the-spotlight-but-skepticism-of-free-trade-has-deep-roots-in-american-history-241311">"Tariffs are back in the spotlight, but skepticism of free trade has deep roots in American history"</a>. The Conversation. Retrieved 1 November 2024.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSchulman2024" class="citation magazine cs1">Schulman, Bruce J. (24 October 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://time.com/7095746/trump-tariffs-politics-rhetoric/">"Tariffs Don't Have to Make Economic Sense to Appeal to Trump Voters"</a>. TIME. Retrieved 1 November 2024.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHelm2018" class="citation news cs1">Helm, Sally (5 April 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/2018/04/05/599707003/smoot-hawley-tariff-act-a-classic-economics-horror-story">"Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act: A Classic Economics Horror Story"</a>. NPR.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBailey2003" class="citation journal cs1">Bailey, Michael A. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.3162/036298003X200845">"The politics of the difficult: Congress, public opinion, and early Cold War aid and trade policies"</a>. Legislative Studies Quarterly. 28 (2): 147–177. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3162%2F036298003X200845">10.3162/036298003X200845</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFKuziemkoWashington2018" class="citation journal cs1">Kuziemko, Ilyana; Washington, Ebonya (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://assets.aeaweb.org/asset-server/files/8017.pdf">"Why did the Democrats lose the South? Bringing new data to an old debate"</a> (PDF). American Economic Review. 108 (10): 2830–2867. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1257%2Faer.20161413">10.1257/aer.20161413</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.globaltradealert.org/">"Independent monitoring of policies that affect world trade"</a>. Global Trade Alert. Retrieved 16 December 2016.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2003/08/31/opinion/a-french-roadblock-to-free-trade.html">"A French Roadblock to Free Trade"</a>. The New York Times. 31 August 2003. Retrieved 22 May 2010.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,3988551,00.html">"Brussels Warns US on Protectionism"</a>. Dw-world.de. 30 January 2009. Retrieved 16 October 2017.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.globaltradealert.org/">"Global Trade Alert"</a>. Globaltradealert.org. Retrieved 16 October 2017.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/spn/2010/spn1007.pdf">"Trade and the Crisis: Protect or Recover"</a> (PDF). Imf.org. Retrieved 16 October 2017.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBaker2017" class="citation news cs1">Baker, Peter (23 January 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/23/us/politics/tpp-trump-trade-nafta.html">"Trump Abandons Trans-Pacific Partnership, Obama's Signature Trade Deal"</a>. The New York Times. Retrieved 1 July 2018.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHayashi2023" class="citation web cs1">Hayashi, Yuka (28 December 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsj.com/politics/policy/biden-struggles-to-push-trade-deals-with-allies-as-election-approaches-fc512595?mod=RSSMSN">"Biden Struggles to Push Trade Deals with Allies as Election Approaches"</a>. The Wall Street Journal.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFIntelligence2023" class="citation web cs1">Intelligence, fDi (21 June 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fdiintelligence.com/content/data-trends/protectionism-trade-restrictions-reach-an-alltime-high-82637">"Protectionism: trade restrictions reach an all-time high"</a>. www.fdiintelligence.com. Retrieved 11 January 2024.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ecb.europa.eu/pub/economic-bulletin/articles/2019/html/ecb.ebart201903_01~e589a502e5.en.html">"The economic implications of rising protectionism: a euro area and global perspective"</a>. European Central Bank. 24 April 2019. Retrieved 11 January 2024.</cite>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> Economic nationalism is an ideology that prioritizes <a href="Economic_interventionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic interventionism">state intervention</a> in the economy, including policies like domestic control and the use of tariffs and restrictions on labor, goods, and capital movement.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> Economic liberalism is a <a href="List_of_political_ideologies" title="List of political ideologies">political</a> and <a href="Economic_ideology" title="Economic ideology">economic ideology</a> that supports a <a href="Market_economy" title="Market economy">market economy</a> based on <a href="Individualism" title="Individualism">individualism</a> and <a href="Private_property" title="Private property">private property</a> in the <a href="Means_of_production" title="Means of production">means of production</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) is a <a href="Treaty" title="Treaty">legal agreement</a> between many countries, whose overall purpose was to promote <a href="International_trade" title="International trade">international trade</a> by reducing or eliminating <a href="Trade_barrier" title="Trade barrier">trade barriers</a> such as <a href="Tariffs" class="mw-redirect" title="Tariffs">tariffs</a> or <a href="Import_quota" title="Import quota">quotas</a>. According to its preamble, its purpose was the "substantial reduction of tariffs and other trade barriers and the elimination of preferences, on a reciprocal and mutually advantageous basis."

</li>

<li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <a href="Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">France</a> also fought on the side of the UK in the <a href="Second_Opium_War" title="Second Opium War">Second Opium War</a>.

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Protectionism" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Protectionism">Protectionism</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFJames1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">James, Edmund Janes (1911). <a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Protection">"Protection" </a>. <a href="Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). pp. 464–468.</cite></li></ul>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="International_trade511" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="International_trade511" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="International_trade" title="International trade">International trade</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terminology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Absolute_advantage" title="Absolute advantage">Absolute advantage</a></li>

<li><a href="Balance_of_payments" title="Balance of payments">Balance of payments</a></li>

<li><a href="Balance_of_trade" title="Balance of trade">Balance of trade</a></li>

<li><a href="Capital_account" title="Capital account">Capital account</a></li>

<li><a href="Comparative_advantage" title="Comparative advantage">Comparative advantage</a></li>

<li><a href="Current_account_(balance_of_payments)" title="Current account (balance of payments)">Current account</a></li>

<li><a href="Export-oriented_industrialization" title="Export-oriented industrialization">Export-oriented industrialization</a></li>

<li><a href="Fair_trade" title="Fair trade">Fair trade</a></li>

<li><a href="Foreign_exchange_reserves" title="Foreign exchange reserves">Foreign exchange reserves</a></li>

<li><a href="Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a></li>

<li><a href="Global_labor_arbitrage" title="Global labor arbitrage">Global labor arbitrage</a></li>

<li><a href="Import_substitution_industrialization" title="Import substitution industrialization">Import substitution industrialization</a></li>

<li><a href="Net_capital_outflow" title="Net capital outflow">Net capital outflow</a></li>

<li><a href="Outsourcing" title="Outsourcing">Outsourcing</a></li>

<li><a href="Tariff" title="Tariff">Tariff</a></li>

<li><a href="Trade_justice" title="Trade justice">Trade justice</a></li>

<li><a href="Trade_war" title="Trade war">Trade war</a></li>

<li><a href="Trading_nation" title="Trading nation">Trading nation</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Organizations and policies</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund">International Monetary Fund</a></li>

<li><a href="UN_Trade_and_Development" title="UN Trade and Development">UN Trade and Development</a></li>

<li><a href="World_Bank_Group" title="World Bank Group">World Bank Group</a></li>

<li><a href="World_Trade_Organization" title="World Trade Organization">World Trade Organization</a>

<ul><li><a href="International_Trade_Centre" title="International Trade Centre">International Trade Centre</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="International_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="International Chamber of Commerce">International Chamber of Commerce</a></li>

<li><a href="Bilateral_investment_treaty" title="Bilateral investment treaty">Bilateral investment treaty</a></li>

<li><a href="Economic_integration" title="Economic integration">Economic integration</a></li>

<li><a href="Incoterms" title="Incoterms">Incoterms</a></li>

<li><a href="ATA_Carnet" title="ATA Carnet">ATA Carnet</a></li>

<li><a href="Free-trade_zone" title="Free-trade zone">Free-trade zone</a></li>

<li><a href="Special_economic_zone" title="Special economic zone">Special economic zone</a></li>

<li><a href="Trade_agreement" title="Trade agreement">Trade agreement</a></li>

<li><a href="Trade_barrier" title="Trade barrier">Trade barrier</a></li>

<li><a href="Trade_bloc" title="Trade bloc">Trade bloc</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Free_trade" title="Free trade">Free trade</a>

<ul><li><a href="Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">The Wealth of Nations</a></li>

<li><a href="Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">Mercantilism</a></li>

<li>

<ul><li><a href="Economic_nationalism" title="Economic nationalism">Economic nationalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Autarky" title="Autarky">Autarky</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Dedollarisation" title="Dedollarisation">Dedollarisation</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Regional_organization" title="Regional organization">Regional organizations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Andean_Community" title="Andean Community">Andean Community</a></li>

<li><a href="Caribbean_Community" title="Caribbean Community">Caribbean Community</a></li>

<li><a href="Central_American_Integration_System" title="Central American Integration System">Central American Integration System</a></li>

<li><a href="Mercosur" title="Mercosur">Mercosur</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia-Pacific</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="ASEAN" title="ASEAN">Association of Southeast Asian Nations</a></li>

<li><a href="Regional_Comprehensive_Economic_Partnership" title="Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership">Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership</a></li>

<li><a href="South_Asian_Association_for_Regional_Cooperation" title="South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation">South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Europe, Central Asia, and North Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Customs_Union_of_the_Eurasian_Economic_Union" title="Customs Union of the Eurasian Economic Union">Customs Union of the Eurasian Economic Union</a></li>

<li><a href="Eurasian_Economic_Union" title="Eurasian Economic Union">Eurasian Economic Union</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Union_Customs_Union" title="European Union Customs Union">European Union Customs Union</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle East and North Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Arab_Customs_Union" title="Arab Customs Union">Arab Customs Union</a></li>

<li><a href="Gulf_Cooperation_Council" title="Gulf Cooperation Council">Gulf Cooperation Council</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Subsaharan Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="East_African_Community" title="East African Community">East African Community</a></li>

<li><a href="CEMAC" title="CEMAC">Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa</a></li>

<li><a href="Southern_African_Customs_Union" title="Southern African Customs Union">Southern African Customs Union</a></li>

<li><a href="West_African_Economic_and_Monetary_Union" title="West African Economic and Monetary Union">West African Economic and Monetary Union</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_top_exporting_countries_by_product_category" title="List of top exporting countries by product category">Exports by product</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="List_of_countries_by_aircraft_and_spacecraft_exports" title="List of countries by aircraft and spacecraft exports">Aircraft & Spacecraft</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_countries_by_aircraft_component_exports" title="List of countries by aircraft component exports">Aircraft parts</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_countries_by_aluminium_exports" title="List of countries by aluminium exports">Aluminium</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_countries_by_automotive_component_exports" title="List of countries by automotive component exports">Car parts</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_countries_by_coffee_exports" title="List of countries by coffee exports">Coffee</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_countries_by_computer_exports" title="List of countries by computer exports">Computers</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_countries_by_copper_exports" title="List of countries by copper exports">Copper</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_countries_by_raw_cotton_exports" title="List of countries by raw cotton exports">Cotton</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_countries_by_diamond_exports" title="List of countries by diamond exports">Diamonds</a></li>

<li><a href="Electricity_by_country" title="Electricity by country">Electricity</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_countries_by_electronics_exports" title="List of countries by electronics exports">Electronics</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_countries_by_engine_exports" title="List of countries by engine exports">Engines</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_countries_by_gas_turbine_exports" title="List of countries by gas turbine exports">Gas turbines</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_countries_by_integrated_circuit_exports" title="List of countries by integrated circuit exports">Integrated circuits</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_countries_by_live_animal_exports" title="List of countries by live animal exports">Live animals</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_countries_by_natural_gas_exports" title="List of countries by natural gas exports">Natural gas</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_countries_by_refined_petroleum_exports" title="List of countries by refined petroleum exports">Petrol</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_countries_by_pharmaceutical_exports" title="List of countries by pharmaceutical exports">Pharmaceuticals</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_countries_by_photovoltaics_exports" title="List of countries by photovoltaics exports">Photovoltaics</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_countries_by_ship_exports" title="List of countries by ship exports">Ships</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_countries_by_steel_production#Exports" title="List of countries by steel production">Steel</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_countries_by_telecommunications_equipment_exports" title="List of countries by telecommunications equipment exports">Telecommunications equipment</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_countries_by_telephone_exports" title="List of countries by telephone exports">Telephones</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_countries_by_textile_exports" title="List of countries by textile exports">Textiles</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_countries_by_truck_exports" title="List of countries by truck exports">Trucks</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_countries_by_vehicle_exports" title="List of countries by vehicle exports">Vehicles</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_countries_by_wheat_exports" title="List of countries by wheat exports">Wheat</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div>

<ul><li> Category</li>

<li> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:International_trade" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:International trade">Commons</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q179073#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1856" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q179073#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1856" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4127791-0">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85051683">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11978398m">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11978398m">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph119997&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datos.bne.es/resource/XX525244">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007550759705171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/b859f0c0-6c10-417f-95e2-5f0500a4acf8">Yale LUX</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-07-28" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Protectionism&oldid=1302926989">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

</div>

</div></div>

</div>

</main>

</div>

</body></html>